Wagner's combat and triumph have been too recent to require detail here. We need only state that his theories of opera, or "music drama" as he preferred to call it, were: 1. The abolition of a set form (that is. ending as one began). and the use of any shape that the poem suggested.
2. Absolute unity of the entire work. No division into songs, duets, choruses, with applause between and some times even encores. Continuity from beginning to end.
3. The music is always to interpret the poetry. Its entire character is to be dictated by the words: " Music is Truth." " In the wedding of the arts Poetry is the man. Music the woman "; " Poetry must lead. Music must fol low "; " Music is the handmaid of Poetry "; are a few of Wagner's apothegms.
4. Abolition of mere tune and the substitution of a melodic recitative, called the " Melos." 5. Absolute freedom of modulation. Not necessarily a fixed tonality to any work or part of it. " Swimming in a sea of tone.' 6. Excellence of libretto. No book is fit to be used fOf the text of an opera unless it would make a successful drama by itself.
7. A constant use of the Leitmotif (a musical figure presvn a definite meaning) by which the orchestra speaks that can be comprehended. somewhat like the chorus used to do in the old Greek tragedies. (See LEIT mom.) These are not all of the theories that Wag ner evolved, but they are the most important. They did not spring into being at once. One sees a few of them in 'Tannhauser,' more in (Lohengrin,) but the fulness of his reforms is first revealed in 'Tristan and Isolde.' Wagner's work has influenced all the mod ern opera composers. Verdi (1813-1901) had begun his career in Italy almost upon the lines of his predecessors. Thanks to his genius he soon began to carve out a better vein for him self. In his 'Aida' he began to lead Italy to a much finer and truer school of opera than it had ever possessed. In and 'Falstaff' while carefully discarding the °Leit-motif" he seems to arrive at almost all the other Wag nerian conclusions, although his Italian per sonality prevents any great resemblance in re sults. In France, Bizet (1838-75), the best of French operatic composers, was starting upon a similar path with 'Carmen' when death inter rupted his career. America has begun to add to the repertoire. Paine and Chadwick began the modern work, but important operas have since been composed by Horatio Parker, Nevin, Cadman, Gilbert, Herbert, Converse, Damrosch and others.
Tracing the piano path from the time of Beethoven we find three great "Cs" in tech nical writing— Czerny (1791-1857). Clementi (1752-1832) and Cramer (1771-1858). These led to a modern technique and this bore fruit in two different directions. Liszt (1811-86) became the king of the piano and brought its technical power to a point that had never been suspected before his time. Chopin (1809-49) came as the poet of the piano and gave to the instrument its most beautiful phases of ex pression. A host of piano composers have sprung up in every civilized country. Russia furnishing a great number.
In connection with the rise of technique we may speak of the advance in other branches of music. Italy had great singing schools in the 18th century, and some of the most famous vocal teachers. Nicolo Porpora (1686-1766) was the most eminent of these, and had as pupils some of the most renowned singers of his day, among them Farinelli (Carlo Broschi) who was reputed to be unrivaled in flexibility and in power. Pistocchi was another of the famous teachers of this epoch and his most famous pupil,— Senesino,— disputed the palm even with Farinelli, in England in Handers time. Vocal technique could scarcely go further than it advanced in the 18th century, although the 19th furnished such singers as Catalani, Malibran, Mario, Rubini, Lablache, Jenny Lind, and later such artists as Jean De Reszhe, Adelina Patti, and, in the dramatic schoo Materna, Tietjens, etc.
In violin technique the chief advance was begun in the 17th century, when Corelli (1653 1713) was the most prominent teacher of Italy. At about this time, too, the golden of violin making began and the Amatis, Stradi varius and the Guarnerii made the name of Cremona (the city in which they worked) famous all over the world. The king of all violinists, speaking entirely from the standpoint of virtuosity, was Paganini (1784-1840) who advanced technique so far that even to-day the greatest living violinists are unable to conquer all of the difficulties which he left as a legacy to the world. Since his time the sceptre has passed to Joachim (1831-1907), who held it for many years, but in his old age, saw it con tended for by a host of advanced players. Paganini influenced violin music toward mere virtuosity, while such players as Joachim, Wil helm] or Wieniawski combined musical feeling with technique in their work. In recent days Ysaye and Kreisler take the lead in this field.