With the rise of the Turkish body-guard under Ma'mun's successor in the 9th century began the gradual decline of the Abbassides, which became more rapid as the Caliphates ended when the Mongols in 1258 captured Bag dad. The changed conditions now under Turk ish and now under Persian sway had their natural effect on Arabic literature. Yet it can point none the less to a continuous array of works on poetry, history — in the latter branch Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) is one of the greatest in Arab annals—philology, anthologies and romances,— which Lane describes in his ern Egyptians' ; with fables such as those of Luqman, through the medium of a Syriac ver sion (1299), by Barsuma, a Christian (d. 1316). Luqman is considered by some to be identical with /Esop.
The 19th century witnessed much literary activity in Arabic-speaking lands, not only in Egypt, Syria, Tunis, Algeria and Morocco, but also in cities like Constantinople and Paris, where Oriental writers are accustomed to meet and the learned recognize the wealth and power of the Arabic. Among the more notable writ ers were Sabbagh (d. 1816), who left a num ber of works in manuscript in the fields of history and grammar; his friend Boqtor (1784-1821), who left an Arabic-French dic tionary; Shaikh Rifa'a, who spent the closing years of his life as head of the Translating Office at Cairo; Faris Al Shidyaq (d. about 1890), who translated the Bible into Arabic and wrote on Arabic synonyms, on animal nature, on his travels, and made various literary and scientific contributions to an Ara bic newspaper; Butrus Bistani (1819-83), a Maronite who became a Protestant, wrote on Arabic literature, arithmetic, grammar, etc. Rushaid Dandah published a number of Arabic texts, chiefly in France. Beyrout was the cen tre of a literary movement in the 19th century; poems, .grammars, dictionaries, biographies
were written and the knowledge of the Arabic classic spread, Father Cherkho of the Beyrout University of Saint Joseph being the, chief pioneer. History was much cultivated in the Lebanon. Damascus in the seventies and eighties produced many books on law, phi losophy, logic, hygiene and theology. Egypt has vied with Syria in its literary activity, the printing presses at Bulaq and private enter prise at Cairo familiarizing the public with Moslem classics, while new writers have done their share in poetry, geography, history. Two historical novels were composed by Zaidan (1834-90), a Syrian Christian. Ali-pacha (1823-93), Minister of Public Instruction, wrote on the metric system (1892) and founded the Cairo Viceregal Library (1870). Habib A. Sahnone of Beyrout and London compiled a great Arabic dictionary and translated Swe denborg's 'Heaven and Hell> into Arabic (1896). In physics, chemistry and natural science there have been numerous authors. The woman question has its expositors and topics of the day are discussed by some writers. To this summary must be added the issue of many newspapers and copious translations from European languages.
Bibliography.— Brockelman, Carl, 'Gesch. d. Arab. Litt> (Weimar 1898; Leipzig 1901) ; Clouston, W. A., 'Arabian Poetry for English Readers' (Glasgow 1881) ; Chenery, T., and Steingass, F., 'The Assemblies of Al-Hariri' (trans., 2 vols., London 1867, 1898) ; Gold zieher, I, 'Abhand. zur Arab. Philologie' (Ley den 1876) ; Huart, Clement, 'A History of Arabic Literature' (New York 1903) ; Lyall, C. J., 'Translations of Ancient Arabian Poetry> (London 1885) ; Noldeke, Th., 'Beitr. zur Kontniss der Poesie der alien Arab' (Hanover 1864). ABRAM S. ISAACS, • Professor of Semitic Languages, New York University.