Armenian Question.— The so-called •Ar menian Question° began after the Russo-Turk ish War of 1877-78. By the treaty of Berlin the Sultan promised much needed reforms for his Armenian subjects to the great Powers, particularly Great Britain and Russia. After 1884, however, Russia's policy toward the Ar menians changed, the reforms were not ef fected and revolutionary movements, in imita tion of the Russian Nihilist propaganda, started among the oppressed Armenians. The Turkish government called upon the Kurds to police the country, sanguinary conflicts en sued, and in 1895-96 brutal and atrocious mas sacres by the Kurds, aided by Turkish sol diers, occurred at Trebizond, Van, Bitlis and in many other parts of the country and entire Armenian communities were wiped out. Eng land, France and Russia protested, the Sultan promised reform and reparation, a commis sion of investigation was formed, but the massacres continued, and in August 1896 from 4,000 to 6,000 Armenians perished in the streets of Constantinople at the hands of the mob, in retaliation for the seizure of the Ot toman bank by Armenian insurgents. Revo lutionary propaganda and minor massacres continued until the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, at first enthusiastically supported by the Armenians. A year later, however, at Adana and throughout Cilicia and northern Syria another massacre on a large scale oc curred and 30,000 Armenians were killed. In April 1915, after the outbreak of the European War, the Turkish government started to put into execution what seemed a systematic plan for the extermination of the Armenian race, and it has been estimated that nearly a million Armenians have perished.
Art.— The only important ruins of the Roman period are at Karni. After the coun try had become Christian many churches were built, possessing much architectural character. The oldest of these still surviving is probably the Church of Saint Ripsima at Vagashabad (618), but the most interesting is the cathe dral at Ani, built about 1010, while of nearly equal importance is the cathedral of Kiutas, on the basilican plan. A church with a strik ing dome and five naves, belonging to the same century, is found at Mowki and there are many others remarkable for the delicacy of decorative details. The most richly orna mented of these is that at Mtzkhet in Georgia, belonging to the 15th century. The Armenian architects and artists were much given to the employment of decorative inscriptions, as were their Mohammedan neighbors, and in their use of animal and decorative sculpture, espe cially for wall panels and for broad bands surrounding windows they showed great ar tistic sense and originality. Carving in wood and ivory was much practised but the Armeni ans especially excelled in the production of cloisonné enamel and in the employment of geo metric ornament applied to buildings as well as to small objects, such as the sacred vessels of the church and toilet articles. Wall-painting was also an Armenian accomplishment and one in which not a little independence of By zantine influence was exhibited. Illuminated Mss. were brought to great perfection in the 13th century. Fine collections of them are preserved in the Armenian Library in Venice and in the monastery of Etchmiadzin in Rus sian Caucasus, the national sanctuary of the Armenian church.
Armenian Church.— The Armenians re ceived Christianity as early as the 3d century. During the Monophysitic disputes, being dis satisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451), they separated from the Greek Church in the year 536 and called themselves the Gregorian Church, after Greg ory the Illuminator. The Popes have at dif
ferent times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith but have not been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church. There are, however, at present about 100,000 United Armenians scattered in Russia, Poland, Galicia Persia and Italy who acknowledge the spiritual su premacy of the Pope; they agree in their doc trines with the Catholics but retain their pe culiar ceremonies and discipline. At different times force has been used to make the Gregorian Armenians conform to the religion of Mohammed; but the far greater part are yet Monophysites and in spite of fierce per secutions have remained faithful to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ and believing the Holy Spirit to issue from the Father alone. In their seven sacraments, which they call mysteries, there are these peculiarities, that in baptism they sprinkle thrice and dip thrice, and this is immediately followed by confirma tion; that in the Lord's Supper they mix no water with the wine and use leavened bread, which they distribute dipped in wine; and that they allow extreme unction only to divines immediately after their death. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in purgatory. In fasting they surpass the Greeks. Their feasts are fewer than those of the Greeks but they celebrate them more devoutly. They worship, in Turkey mostly in the night time; the mass is said in the ancient Armenian, the sermon is preached in the modern. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The catholicus or head of the church has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a monastery near Erivan, the capital of the Russian Armenia, on Mount Ararat. The holy oil, which he prepares and sells to the clergy and the frequent pilgrimages of the Armenians to Etchmiadzin, supply him with means for the support of a magnificent style of worship and of establishments for educa tion. He maintains in his residence a semi nary for the education of divines. There is here also a printing press. When the office of catholicus is vacant two candidates are elected by the people, through their repre sentatives in each diocese, and the Tsar chooses between them. The patriarchs of Con stantinople and Jerusalem, the bishops and arch bishops are invested by the Catholicus and every three years confirmed in their offices or recalled. In Turkey the Patriarch of Constan tinople is the official as well as the real ecclesi astical head of the nation and presides over the National Assembly which includes two ad ministrative bodies: the committee for civil affairs and the committee for ecclesiastical affairs. The remainder of the clergy are often ignorant but generally respected and re semble the priests of the orthodox church in rank and duties. The monks follow the rule of Saint Basil. The vartabets, who live like monks, cultivate the sciences, take degrees, which may be compared with the usual aca demical honors and are the vicars of the bishops, form a class of divines peculiar to the Armenian Church. The secular priests must be married once, but are not allowed to take a second wife. Armenian churches have been established in the United States wherever a considerable body of Armenian refugees have settled.