Among the countries of modern Europe the foundation of a standing army was first laid in France. In 1439 Charles VII of France issued an ordinance called the Ordinance of Orleans for the creation of a number of troops of horse (hence called compagnies d'ordon nonce or ordinance companies), which were to be maintained by the cities and villages in war and peace. In 1448 the same king established a corresponding body of infantry called Francs-archers. Henceforward the feudal militia fell more and more into disrepute, and the vassals assembled their forces only on occasions of great emergency. The example of France was followed elsewhere, and dur ing the wars of Francis I and Charles V at the beginning of the 16th century, France, Germany and Spain were all in possession of considerable standing armies. These armies were all raised mainly by voluntary enlistment, compulsory levies being resorted to only under the pressure of very exceptional circumstances. The usual practice was for the king to contract with some nobleman or gentleman for the raising of a regiment; but in the Thirty Years' War Gustavus Adolphus set the example of raising all his troops directly for his own service. In this same war, however, a whole army was raised for the emperor by a private gentleman (the celebrated Wallen stein), the emperor engaging to give him the command of it. Gustavus Adolphus was also the author of many reforms in army organiza tion. He established smaller divisions, intro duced lighter weapons, separated the pikemen from the musketeers, who had hitherto been mixed together, and made many improvements in the artillery; by all of which changes quicker and more complicated movements became practicable. The soldier was more thoroughly drilled and reduced almost to a machine, while the responsibilities of the officers were increased. The wars of Louis XIV led to further improvements in military organization and tactics, and in a still greater degree to the increase of the size of armies. Instead of the 14,000 men maintained by Henry IV of France, Louis XIV, after the Peace of Nijmegen (1678) had on foot an army of 140,000 men. Armies were likewise increased by all the other powers of Europe except England and Holland, where the strengthening of the standing army was looked on with great jealousy, and till the time of William III continually opposed by the repre sentatives of the people as dangerous to free dom. Among the military powers that came to the front in the next century the new Prussian monarchy was perhaps the most con spicuous. Frederick William I devoted all his energies to the creation of a strong military force, and his army of 80,000 was increased by Frederick II to 200,000. The latter intro duced the system which still prevails in Prus sia, and is now extended to the whole German empire, of localizing the different sections of his army. Each regiment was assigned to a certain district, which was bound to keep it at its full complement. Where voluntary enlist ment did not suffice for this purpose resort was had to conscription; but this was applied only to the lowest classes of the community. The systems of drill now followed in all European armies are founded on that intro duced into the Prussian army by Leopold of Dessau, who organized it under Frederick Wil liam I. Cavalry tactics were greatly improved by Frederick the Great himself, who also was the first to use horse artillery. The dividing of artillery into batteries is of about the same date, but is due to a Frenchman named Gri beauval.
Since the time of Frederick the Great a great change has taken place in the composition of armies through the reintroduction of the principle of the universal liability of all men capable of bearing arms to military service, or, in other words, through the raising of armies by a general conscription, now practised in every European country. • Conscription was first adopted by France in 1798, and it was by means of it that Napoleon was able to raise the large armies with which he overran and conquered a great part of the Continent. In
1808 it was adopted by Prussia, by which power it has been applied with greater rigor than by any other. In Prussia it was combined with the short-service system, a mode of train ing the population to arms suggested by leon's attempt in the Peace of Tilsit to limit the Prussian army to a certain strength. This system consists in requiring those serving in the active army to remain under arms for a comparatively short term (in Prussia three years), during which they become thoroughly trained soldiers ready for active service on any emergency. Every year a certain number return from the army to civil life, and are replaced by others who are subjected to tary training for the same term. By this means Prussia, while never maintaining a larger active army than that prescribed by the Peace of Tilsit, was able to train its whole able-bodied male population to arms, and that without allowing the fact to be discovered until it was made manifest by the war of revenge in 1813. In other countries where the principle of conscription had been adopted its operation was greatly weakened by the numerous exemptions that might be obtained, and especially by allowing those required to serve to obtain exemption by paying for a substitute. Especially was this the case in France, where, under Napoleon III, the army had again become to all intents and purposes a professional one. In army organization the principal change that has been made since the introduction of conscription has been the establishment of army corps (corps d'armee), that is, divisions of an army composed of all arms (infantry, cavalry and artillery), and placed under the command of a single general. These divisions were first established by poleon, who placed them under the command of his marshals. The division was afterward adopted by Prussia and extended to the man empire, where the further improvement is made of localizing each army corps in a i certain province or member of the empire, in which it is reunited, and in which are kept all the arms and other equipments necessary for its mobilization. In the Prussian army the cavalry are very numerous, and are used principally on the march, when they are sent in front to cover the advance of the main body of the troops, and to collect information. In all armies considerable changes in tactics have resulted from the increased range, precision and rapidity of fire of the improved artillery and musketry now in use.
In most nations, will now be found an army of reserve, intended to augment the standing army from a peace to a war strength, and con sisting of two classes — those waiting an im mediate call to arms, if required, and those constituting the militia— the entire effective military power of the state. It may be of interest here to mention certain distinctions in the application of the word army. A covering army is encamped for the protection of the different passes or roads which lead to the town or other place to be protected. A siege army is ranged around or in front of a forti fied place, to capture it by a regular process of besieging. A blockading army, either inde pendent of, or auxiliary to, a siege army, is intended to prevent all ingress and egress at the streets or gates of a besieged place. An army of observation takes up an advanced posi tion, and by celerity of movement keeps a close watch on all the manoeuvres of the enemy. An army of reconnaissance has a more special duty at a particular time and place, to ascertain the strength and position of the enemy's forces. A flying column is a small army carrying all its supplies with it, so as to be able to operate quickly and in any direction, independently of its original base of operations.