Of equal note with the beautiful productions from Meissen, Germany, are those lovely crea tions in soft porcelain made at Sevres, France. Established first at Vincennes, in 1738, this factory, which had come into possession of the king, was transferred to Sevres. As already described, the development of the Sevres pate was a fine art carried out with the most ex haustive research. The Sevres body tran scended in delicate beauty and softness any thing produced at Meissen and we are indebted to the fact that kaolin had not been discovered in that section that we inherit an artificial por celain body that is the admiration of the world. The wealth of royalty caused marvelous pieces in the most delicate color decoration to be made for the court and for gifts to foreign rulers, regardless of the great expense in production. A full account of the history and products of this world-renowned porcelain will be found under another title (see SkvitEs). Already in 1725 Ciquaire Cirou had established a por celain factory at Chantilly under the patronage of Louis-Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Conde. Beautiful figures, but mainly table services, ar tistically decorated, were its chief products. Japanese decoration frequently is found on earliest pieces, for the factory license was ranted to produce pieces in imitation of the Japanese porcelains. For Japanese porcelains were becoming vogue with their clever kakiemon decorative methods. Chantilly factory re mained active till 1800. And from now on many members of royalty and nobility aided in the starting of porcelain factories in different parts of France, even when the laws protecting the royal Sevres monopoly forbade the com petition. Soft porcelain was made at Mennecy Villeroy from 1734 till 1773 when the factory was transferred to Bourg-la-Reine continuing till 1806. Others opened as follows: Lille (1711),Sceatmc (1749), Orleans (1753), Crepy en-Valois (1762), Saint Amand-les-Eaux (1771), etc. But about 1768 kaolin was dis covered at Saint Yrieix (Haute-Vienne) and France turned to making hard porcelain at Orleans (from 1768) ; Brancas-Lauragais (1764), where kaolin and petuntse were also found as early as 1750; Vincennes (from 1765), Niderviller (1765), Vaux (1769), Luniville (1769), Arras (1770). At Paris alone We find the following hard porcelain factories estab lished: Rue de Bondy, named after the Duc d'Angouleme (1780) ; Faubourg Saint Antoine (about 1773) ; factory of the Comte d'Artois (about 1769) ; Clignancourt (1771) ; La Courtille or Basse Courtille, in the faubourg du Temple (1771) ; °Prince des Galles° factory, rue de Cressol; Duke of Orleans' factory in Faubourg Saint Antoine (about 1784), then transferred to Pont-aux-Choux; rue Popincourt factory (1782) ; rue de Reuilly (1774) ; rue de in Roquette (1774) ; rue Thiroux (1775), made °Porcelaine a in Reine.° Other notable hard porcelain factories were established as follows: Arras (1770), La Seynie (1774), Marseilles (1776), Boissette (1778), Lille (1784), Valen ciennes (1785), Caen (1797). In Belgium a factory was started in 1750 at Tournay which became one of the most flourishing in Europe, lasting to the present day. In Germany very noted factories, besides that of Meissen (Dres den) and turning out the most beautiful art ware (figures, etc.), must be mentioned that of Fiirstenberg, established in 1746 by Duke Karl of Brunswick with Johann Christoph Glaser of Bayreuth as expert. Its activities continue to this day. At Hochst (1746) porcelains were produced that brought the factory to be third in Germany after Meissen and Berlin, but the works were closed in 1798. In 1750 Wilhelm Caspar Wegeli established a factory at Berlin. but he closed to take up the wool industry in 1757. The sculptor, Ernest Heinrich Reich hard, got possession but turned over the place to J. E. Gotzkowski in 1761. Friedrich Elias Meyer, the modeler, was engaged with Jaques Clauce, the noted enamel painter and other skil ful craftsmen. Lacking success Gotzkowski sold the factory (1763) with a rich stock, 133 figure molds and other valuable material for 225,000 thalers and the place received the title °Konigfiche Porzellan-Manufactur° as the prop erty of Frederick the Great, who got crafts men from Meissen and soon established success ful operations. The early yellowish-gray paste formerly used was displaced by that made from kaolin obtained in Silesia, making a whiter paste. Rococo style was in highest vogue so Berlin pieces of the early period are steeped in the extravagances of this style. Grand pieces were constructed for the king's court, candelabra and mirror-frames for Sans-Souci Palace, a great centre table-piece for Catherine II of Russia consisting of allegorical and other figures in white biscuit (unglazed). Biscuit has been ever since the usual method of production of Berlin figures. Coffee and tea services from this factory show very delicate decoration en cantaieu. Berlin's iron-red and rose-crimson are two of her best successes in colors. The factory is still active but has suffered from the same degeneracy in art as other fabriques. The porcelain factories of Frankenthal (1755) and Ludwigsburg (1758) are noted for the lovely art works produced, but lack of space forbids their detail; the same must be said of the fac tory at Nymphenburg (1758), bare enumera tion of their existence being here alone possible together with the statement that their produc tions when they appear in the auction-room bring extraordinary prices and are considered worthy the cost. Cassel (1766) and Kelster bach (1758) and Fulda (1765), all had por celain factories, and in the Thuringian forests, where kaolin was discovered and fuel was cheap, Sitzendorf-Volkstedt (1762), Gera Unterhaus (same date), Kloster Veilsdorf (1765), have their works still active. Wallen dorf (1765), Gotha (1767), Limbach (1772), Grossbreitenbach (1780), Rauenstein (1783), Tettau (1794) and Possneck (1800) are all in more or less successful operation to this day.
The porcelain factory at Vienna was estab lished in 1718 but failed to make headway, and to 1744 had been a financial failure all the time. Its sale to the state in that year permitted a more substantial condition to prevail and both demand and supply grew till the great trade depression that started in 1779 caused such an unsatisfactory financial condition at the factory that (1784) it was offered for sale without bidders. Rococo, the prevailing style of decora tion 9f that period, predominates in the Vienna ward of this second period. In the latter-men tioned year the factory was placed under the control of Baron von Sorgenthal as director; and the fortunes of the fabrique rapidly changed for the better and with an ever-increas ing demand that made the space cramped and a branch was started in 1799 at Engelhardzell, near Passau. The rococo style gave way to antique classic under Sorgenthal. In 1805 Vienna entered on her fourth period, when Sorgenthal died and Niedermayer took his posi tion and continued the financial success in spite of the severe obstacles created by the war, such as the loss of Passau and the factory at Engel hardzell. By 1816 decline set in and in 1827 Niedermayer retired, the fifth period opening with Benjamin Scholtz directing. He used cheap clay and made poor quality of ware and the factory declined still further till 1833, when Scholtz died and Baumgartner, professor of physics at the university, succeeded. A small profit was now made by producing common porcelain for domestic use. Later more artistic work was undertaken (1856) by Alexander Lowe, but in 1864 the factory was closed to stop the continuous loss. Holland had porce lain factories at Weesp (about T763), Oude Loosdrecht (about 1774) and The Hague (1778), but none lasted long. Switzerland, in Zurich (1763) and Noyon (end of the 18th century), had porcelain factories but they soon closed. Kaolin was discovered in Denmark (1756) and a porcelain factory was opened the same year in Copenhagen, which after changing hands was followed by a new factory in 1772, but it was no success till, in 1779, the king took up the works and it is still running and producing beautiful art work worth lengthy comment. In Italy, besides Florence and Venice before men tioned early in this article, Doccia (1737) made both soft and hard porcelain; Capo-di-Monte also made soft porcelain of lovely character and refinement from 1742 till 1759, when the king of Naples and Sicily became king of Spain and removed his factory to his palace of Bum Retiro, near Madrid, where work continued till 1808. At Saint Petersburgh, Russia, about 1745, Empress Elizabeth started a hard-paste factory which has continued to this day. The chief work strongly imitates Meissen (Dresden) dur ing the Seven Years' War period as the work men were from Meissen; then followed Sevres style.
English So far as known the first English soft paste was made at Chelsea (earliest specimen dated 1745). Bow is said to have produced artificial porcelain as early as 1730, but 1740 is generally considered the date of work on a commercial scale. Derby works were started in 1756 and Worcester was established in 1731. Other factories are those of Longton Hall (1752), Davenport (1794), Minton (1798), Spode (after 1797), Lowestoft (1756?), Liverpool (Herculaneum 1800), Caugh ley (1772), Coalport (after 1814), Pinxton (about 1795), Church Gresley (1795), Nant garw (about 1813), Swansea (1814). Kaolin and petuntse for making hard-paste porcelain were first discovered by Cookworthy (1758) in Cornwall and the first factory to make true porcelain was at Plymouth (1764) ; he sold out to Champion of the Bristol works (1770). Full description of the history and characteris tics of the wares of prominent factories will be found under the titles Bow, Balsrot., CHELSEA, DERBY, LOWESTOFT, WORCESTER, etc.
With the 18th century certain proportions of bone had been used in the ingredients compos ing the porcelain body by certain factories; with the beginning of the 19th century this hone paste had become standardized in all fac tories and, as a consequence, the English "stand ard( or "bone" porcelain swept aside all other kinds and the factories of the Continent found themselves faced with a condition in which the English porcelain factories filled all the common needs of the European table services with a pure white, inexpensive, hard-porcelain, impossible of competition. The (standard)) ware has been universally used for commercial ware ever since.
Bibliography.— Auscher, E. S., 'A History and Description of French Porcelain (London 1905, trans. by Wm. Burton) ; Boyer, —, 'Nou veau manuel complet du porcelainier et du faiencier> (Paris 1846) ; Brongniart, A., 'Traite des arts ceramiques) (2d ed., Paris 1854) ; Brining, A., 'Porzellan> (Berlin 1907) ; Bur ton, W., 'Porcelain : a sketch of its nature, art and manufacture) (London 1906) •, id., 'A His tory and Description of English Porcelain) (London 1902) ; Church, Sir A. H., 'English Porcelain made during the 18th Century, as illustrated by specimens in the national collec tions) (London 1904) ; Davillier, Baron C. H., 'Les origines de la porcelaine en Europe) (Paris 1882) ; Chavagnac, Comte de X, and Grollier, Marquis de, 'Histoire des manufac tures francaises de porcelaine- (Paris 1906) ; Dillon, E., 'Porcelain) (New York 1904) ; Dietz, R., 'Das (Halle a. S. 1907) ; Nightingale, J. E., 'Contributions toward the History of Early English Porcelain) (Salis bury, England, 1::1) ; Salvetat, M. A., de ceramique professees Centrale des Arts> (Paris 1837) ; Solon, M. L, 'Brief His tory of Old English Porcelain) (London 1903) ,• Turner, W., 'The Ceramics of Swansea and Nantgarw> (London 1897) ' • Wylde, C. H., 'How to Collect Continental China) (London 1907).