Spiking and Gauging.—All track should al ways be kept full spiked and in perfect gauge. Bad gauging detracts from the appearance of an otherwise good track, makes track easier to knock out of line and down below surface, and is the direct cause of wrecks. The spikes should be driven about two and one-half inches from the edge of a track tie. Both inside spikes should be driven on one edge of a tie and both outside spikes on the other edge in order to prevent the tie slewing and also to assist in holding the rail from creeping. The -standard gauge on American railroads is four feet eight and one-half inches; according to conditions, broad gauge is greater and narrow gauge lesser than standard width.
Drainage.— In order to ditch a cut properly it is necessary to take measurements from the rail to the bottom of the face of the cut, at different points along the cut, and ascertain at what average distance from the track the back of the ditch should be located. The width of a cut and the slope of its face on each side of the track will govern, to a certain extent, how far from the track rails to place the back of the ditch. The ditch should be deep enough to thoroughly drain the track and the distance from the rail to the back of it should be in pro portion to the depth of the ditch, giving the water an easy fall from the track and free pas sage through the ditch, avoiding all danger of its washing the shoulder of the grade or under mining the track. As a general rule the bottom of the ditch should be eight to 10 feet from the rails where the grade width will allow it, and about two feet below the bottom of the ties. When the track is ballasted with dirt the slope should commence in the centre of the track two and one-half inches above the ties, falling at the rate of one and one-half inches to the foot. From this point, which is three feet out side the ties, and two inches lower, the incline should be greater, about in the proportion of four inches to the horizontal foot. If the track is ballasted with gravel the slope toward the back of the ditch should commence about two feet outside the track rails, the ballast at this point being level with the base of the rails. To insure a thoroughly good drainage all the water which falls upon the track or adjacent land should be conducted through ditches, cul verts, bridges or other channels to the nearest running stream that will take it away beyond all possibility of injuring the track. Where muskrats or minks are plentiful and cause damage to the track by burrowing under it, a heavy coating of cinders and slag along the sides of the embankment is an effectual protec tion against their depredations. The cinders form an acid in the water and at the same time are too sharp for the animals to burrow through.
Vitrified Pipe Culverts.— The use of vitri fied pipe for culverts under railroads has con tinued in constantly increasing volume since 1878; its advantages are now fully appreciated and experience has pointed out such treatment as will ensure the best results in efficiency and permanency. In northern latitudes especially,
where severe cold prevails, the culvert should have a good fall, and be so constructed that no standing water be allowed to remain in the pipes and freeze. When drainage capicity greater than that afforded by one pipe is desired, two or more lines of pipe may be laid side by side. This practice is quite common, and gives an important advantage in that the full capacity of pipes is utilized at a lower depth of water, but the separate lines for pipe should be laid far enough apart to secure a solid bed for each one. No arbitrary rules can be made for work of this character. Varying physical conditions must be met and each particular work treated separately on its merits. Under especially favorable conditions of good soil, light embank ment and good drainage, there is no doubt that the pipe culvert may be put in without cement and without end abutments, ensuring complete construction at minimum cost, but the durability of vitrified pipe being conceded, the permanency of the work is a prime considera tion, and the wisest economy would seem in all cases to suggest the use of concrete as a founda tion for the pipe, and that each end of the pipe culvert be protected by parapet walls of sub stantial stone or brick masonry.
Ballasting.— If stone is difficult to obtain a good track can be made with gravel and stone combined for ballast. The foundation for the track is laid with broken stone and above it placed a quantity of coarse gravel sufficient to bed the ties, surface the track and dress it. Cinders are equally effective as a ballast, except in wet cuts, where stone should be used, and are cheaper than either stone or gravel. Six inches of cinders will absorb about one inch of rain fall, and will thus keep the foundation beneath the ballast dry. They make a superior ballast on clay fills or gumbo bottoms, and are a posi tive exterminator of weeds. Where the sub grade is well drained and solid, an excellent track can be made by ballasting with two cars of gravel in a place, and to accomplish the work in this way, estimates may be taken at the rate of 325 cars of gravel to the mile of track. The embankment should not be less than 14 feet wide on top before putting on the gravel. Al though locomotive cinders, furnace slag, burned clay and gravel make excellent ballasts, within the past few years the best results have been obtained from stone ballast where the stones are sufficiently small to pass through a one and one-half inch ring. The first cost of stone ballast is large; but once in place and thoroughly tamped it is extremely solid, will arrest the springing action of the track and will ensure a nearly perfect drainage.