In the west of Scotland it ranges from 39.37 to 100 inches while in the eastern counties it is only 26 inches. At Ben Nevis it is 151 inches. Over Edinburgh district waterworks for 6 years precipitation averaged about 48 inches. Over the headwaters of the Usk, Wye and rivers in Wales rainfall ranges from 45 to 75 inches per annum. In Ireland there is heavy precipitation near the high hills in the west though less than in the Highlands of Scotland. Its general average is more than it is in the eastern districts of England. Over the valley of the river Vartry the annual rain fall averages 48.82 inches. In Norway the annual precipitation varies from 12 inches at I)ovre Field to 83 inches between Bukken Fjord and Nordfjord. At Bergen it ranges from 73 to 89 inches. In Sweden the annual rainfall ranges from 12.32 inches at Karesuando to 45.82 inches at Cattegat. In Denmark the annual precipitation ranges from 21.58 to 27.87 inches. In Holland it averages 27.99 inches. At Utrecht it is 27.5 inches and at Tilburg it is 27.6 inches. At Amsterdam and The Hague it averages 27 inches. In Belgium the precipitation is approxi mately 28 inches. At Brussels it is 27.6 inches. The annual precipitation in France averages about 32 inches. For many years it averaged at Marseilles 20.75 inches and at Nantes 35 inches. Over the Rhone it ranges from al to 63 inches, averaging 36.32 inches. Over the Meuse it is 28.33 inches, over Yonne 30.80 inches, and over the Seine 22.7 inches. In the south of France precipitation is less than it is along the Atlantic Coast. In Switzerland the annual precipitation has been 21.7 inches, at Sierre, 32.7 inches, at Geneva, 36.6 inches, at Berne, 42.6 inches, at Montreux, 48.7 inches, on the great Saint Bernard, 65.4 inches, at Lugano, 87.3 inches, on San Bernardino Pass, 89.7 inches of rain and snow in the Alps, facing north or south, thereby intercepting vapor laden winds from the Arctic Ocean or from the Mediterranean Sea. In the valley of the Inn River it ranges from 22.43 to 57 inches. Scores of glaciers are found in the great ele vated valleys of the Alps, and these feed the Rhine, the the Po and the Inn rivers and their tributaries. The snows and glaciers cover the high ranges and intervening valleys, whose uplift resembles the foaming billowy ocean. At Saint Maria in the Alps the precipi tation is 104.35 inches. In Germany it ranges from 20 to 34 inches. At Berlin it is 22.8 inches. Over the Moselle it is 29.48 inches, over the Rhine 36.69 inches, over the Main from 16 to 27.44 inches and over the Oder 24.60 inches. For 10 years it averaged 47.1 inches over the Mangfall Valley near Muhlthal. In Austria the annual precipitation ranges in various sections from 20.24 to 60 inches, and on the Dalmatian Coast it has been as high as 177 inches. At Vienna for 34 years it averaged 23.42 inches. In Hungary it averages 24 inches, at Budapest 34.32 inches, at Zagrab 70.39 inches, at Fiume and over the mouth of the Danube it is 35.12 inches. In Russia, where there are many moun tains, high plateaus and extensive plains facing the Arctic Ocean, there is precipitation in the form of much snow, but not extensive rainfall. The average rainfall in Archangel is 16.2 inches, in Helsingfors, Finland, 19.6 inches, in Petro grad 18.3 inches, in Dorpat 24.9 inches, in Mos cow 23 inches, in Warsaw, Russia, 22.8 inches, in Odessa 15.6 inches, at Batum 93 inches, at Sochi 80 inches, in Poti 64.9 inches; while in Astrakhan it is only 5.7 inches and over the plains of Russia but 20 inches. In Portugal, whose westerly coast is exposed to the winds of the Atlantic, there are heavy fogs and precipi tation in the north occasionally amounts to 192 inches, while in the interior and in the south there is far less rainfall. In Spain rainfall aver ages at Madrid 15 inches, at Salamanca 11.3 inches, at San Fernando 30 inches, at Bilboa 46 inches, at San Diego 66 inches, at Oviedo 74 inches and over large areas there is but little precipitation and intense heat. Italy has moder ate precipitation. The Alps in the north and its Apennines, extending nearly its entire length, intercept the vapor-laden winds of the Mediter ranean and Adriatic seas. It projects southerly into warm latitudes and has a hot summer climate. Over it in the classic ages Jupiter Pluvius reigned from sea to sea. Precipitation varies from 36 inches in the north to 20 inches in the south of Italy. In Sicily it averages 15 inches. Sunny Italy is characteristic of its central and southern sections, where there is infrequent and scanty rainfall in summer months. Over the Po the rainfall ranges from 30 to 48 inches and snow in the north and mists along the coast are not uncommon. The pre cipitation at Tohnezzo is 96 inches. In Lom bardy precipitation averages 22 inches, and irri gation canals are necessary to supply the lands with sufficient water for agricultural purposes. Nearly all Italian cities are supplied with water from rivers and mountain or ground sources. Aqueducts and infiltration tunnels through tufa without linings have long been in use to main tain such supplies. Through such tunnels 22
gallons per second are delivered at Mazzara and 40 gallons per second at Zappulla in Sicily.
Dr. Angot calculated the rainfall by month* at Rome and found the annual precipitation there to be 12.03 inches and at Milan to be 12.01 inches. In Greece the annual precipitation ranges from 16.1 inches in Attica to 53.34 inches in the Ionian Isles, Olympian Zeus presided over atmospheric changes and his chief weapon was the thunderbolt. The Grecian states are well watered. In Bulgaria the mean annual precipitation is 29.59 inches. In Rumania rain fall ranges from 15 to 20 inches. The water supply of Constantinople is from streams. springs and rainfall in the forests where reser voirs impound the waters that are conducted in aqueducts, one of which was built during the reign of Constantine.
Several rainfall maps of Europe have been made and these may be consulted for further information on this subject. However, it may be stated that all western and northern Europe are abundantly supplied with copious rains and all the mountains with heavy falls of snow that supply the headquarters of its large rivers flowing to the salted seas on the north, west and south. They supply populous areas in many parts of Europe.
Africa.— In the continent of Africa pre cipitation ranges from 1.5 inches in Egypt to 20 inches on the southwestern coast and to heavy rainfall in its tropical areas. In Abys sinia it ranges from 30 to 40 inches supplying some tributaries of the Nile. Along the south eastern coast facing the Indian Ocean the rain falls is 50 inches while in the interior of South Africa it ranges from 5 to 24 inches and at some places on the east coast it is only 40 inches. At Johnannesburg, it averages 30 inches, at Paarl and Weltevreden in Cape Colony it averaged for 14 years 34.67 to 35.97 inches. The annual rainfall at Durban is 42.46 inches and at East London, South Africa, it is 62.11 inches. Heavy fogs dampen some areas where there is but little rainfall.
Asia.— In Arabia are great waterless deserts while in some mountain areas living springs of water are found. There is some rainfall in northern and central Arabia. At Dhala in 1892 there was over 18 inches, while at Aden it averaged 2.97 inches. Sir A. Houtum-Schind ler found the mean annual rainfall at Teheran for 15 years to average 9.86 inches and reported that at 15 stations in Persia for various years it ranged from 324 inches at Jask to 56.45 inches at Resht. The average at all these sec tions was about 17 inches.
Asia presents so many physical formations of mountain ranges, elevated plateaus, great river basins, extensive arid regions, varying climates and oceanic influences as to cause ex cessive precipitation of rain and snow in some great mountain areas and little in some other sections. Only a few measurements can be given. The mean annual precipitation over the Caspian watersheds is 7 to 8 inches, over the Aral Sea 6 inches, in western Syria facing the Mediterranean a moderate rainfall, at Beirut it is 21.66 inches, at Jerusalem, 36.22 inches. The normal rainfall over Palestine is about 28 inches, while in the vicinity of the Lebanon range it is copious. There is very lit tle rainfall east of Damascus and over eastern Syria. Between the Orontes and Euphrates some of the slight rainfall is caught and stored up for the water supply. The water of the springs in the vicinity of Mount Lebanon is conducted into cisterns and conserved for do mestic and agricultural purposes. Hundreds of water-wheels, operated by the current of the Orontes, or by animal power lift its waters to supply communities along its banks and to irri gate agricultural districts. Astride the Orontes 120 miles north of Damascus is the land of Hamath, supplied by six or more great under shot water-wheels,. some 80 feet in diameter, that raise the water of the river into conduits extending through the city. Other sections are supplied with water drawn from wells by end less ropes carrying buckets and operated by camels turning vertical spindles. Irrigation in its primitive form is practised in Parts of Syria. The Romans also practised it about the Sea of Tiberias, where the remains of aqueducts may still be seen. The waters of the Abana rush ing down over wheels placed in the falls of the Anti-Lebanon ranges develop power to propel the street cars of Damascus and to light that ancient city, which obtains, its water supply through conduits from the same sources. In Asia Minor swept by the cool winds of the Black Sea there is much snow and there are occasional heavy rains. It has many springs fed by the underground flow produced by the melting snows of its high mountains. It has some lakes, whose waters are somewhat de pleted during the long dry season. In 1912, Dutch engineers designed and French con tractors constructed irrigation works to utilize the waters of Bey-Sjehir • and Jaila lakes and a canal connecting with the Tsjartpjamba River to irrigate 126,000 acres of Koala Plain.