Erasistratus (about 300 s.c.) was a close ob server as an anatomist and made use of his knowledge of the valves of the heart. He dis covered the lymph vessels, described the epi glottis, successfully removed the spleen and per formed other remarkable operations.
Aret•us was one of the most brilliant men of the second century before the Christian era. He recognized surgical affections of the brain and described the Syriac or Egyptian ulcer, tetanus and anal fistula.
Galen (q.v.), who died about 201 A.D., must have had considerable knowledge of anatomy.
History indicates that he was a vivisector, and to him is due a clear classification of the mus cles, which is followed at the present day, as the *flexors and extensors.* He came very near discovering the circulation of the blood, and divided the body into the *cranial, thoracic and abdominal cavities,* whose proper viscera and envelopes he described. This was during a period when encouragement was given to the study of anatomy. The works of one Oribasius (q.v.), who diefabout 400, were based on the writings of those who had preceded him, but had a distinct importance of their own. He showed much originality in the treatment of hydrocephalus, advised naracentesis of thorax and abdomen, removal of calculi, treat ment of aneurism, excision of hypertrophied mammse in men, etc. Atityllus who flourished about , this period was one of the most distin guished and original surgeons of antiquity. He was the first to describe the extraction of small cataracts and is perhaps best known to the sur gical world of to-day by his exceedingly bold plan of opening aneurisms, so successfully imitated by the late James Symes.
It is to be remembered that during the Greek period Galen and his followers dissected animals and occasionally a corpse on the field of battle.
In the 6th and 7th centuries the Arabians gave more encouragement to dissection and demonstrated that surgery required a knowl edge of anatomy. One of the most celebrated Arabian physicians was Rhazes (q.v.), who died about 932. He compiled from all authors some 37 books on medicine and surgery.
Albucasis (936-1013) in one of his writings gives a most detailed account of necessary in struments and in speaking of their proper use and application to surgery, he emphasizes the fact that surgeons should be versed in the science of anatomy.
In visiting the various museums in Europe at the present time, especially Naples, one is greatly impressed with the variety of ancient surgical instruments that have been recovered from the ruins of Pompeii and other former surgical centres.
Avenzoar (q.v.), who died about 1169, wrote one of the most remarkable treatises on renal diseases, especially in reference to the treat ment of calculus and further surgical inter vention.
From the 9th to the 13th century the Jews and the Christian clergy shared the honors of the healing art, and during this time references are not infrequently made to the work of the barber-surgeon (see BARBER). Lithotomy (q.v.) seems to have been developed in this period and it is noted (1022) that Henry H, Holy Roman emperor, was cut for stone by Saint Benedict himself.
In the 13th century Rolger of Palermo was evidently one of the most distinguished pio neers in modern surgery. He was the first to use the term aseton.* His pupil, Roland, wrote a treatise on surgery, which became very famous and was mentioned by Guy de Chauliac, *restorer of French surgery in the 14th cen tury.* The latter was probably one of the most famous surgeons of that time. He opened the abdomen for dropsy and operated for the radi cal cure of hernia and for cataract.
The history of the school of Salerno in the 13th century indicates that practitioners of surgery had to devote a certain time to the study of anatomy, were obliged to pass an examination by the faculty of the university and were licensed by the royal hands. Surgeons recognized the importance of nausea, vomiting and hemorrhage from the ears, in injuries to the head. They used the trephine (q.v.) in treating fractures of the skull and treated hernia cerebri by pressure and caustics. Ligatures were used in wounds of the carotid arteries and jugular veins. The surgeons also treated wounds of the abdomen. Lithotomy was described with care and compound fractures were treated with splints.