Literature.—The Syriac language is of great importance as the medium of literary ex pression of so much of the activities of the early Christians and because of the numerous versions of the Bible or parts thereof written in it. The Syriac writers showed all the literary activity of their ancestors and of the Semitic races by which they were surrounded. There is no doubt but that this activity was the legiti mate result of long years of literary practice during their pre-Christian life; but unfortu nately this early pagan literature has disap peared. But there is plenty belonging to the Christian period still in existence. This covers every avenue of the activities of a people, philosophy, law, science, legend, story, religion, biblical lore, poetry, church government, can onical law, liturgy, biography, historical, romance and theology in all its many forms. Like the Hebrew, Christian Syriac literature shows the ever-present, ever over-brooding spirit of the religious thought which had early in the Christian era obtained such a hold upon the imagination and the affection of the Syr ians. The use of Syriac in literature was spread pretty well over the centres of population of the area covered by the language itself as in dicated previously in this article. Almost every Syriac city at some time in its career became more or less active in a literary way previous to the Arabic conquest of Syria (636-37) and the body of literature thus produced was large and varied within a certain field limited only by the activities of the people themselves phys ically and mentally. In fact the Syriac litera ture is very largely a chronicle of these racial i activities. Hence it is not great in a poetical sense. The style and manner of expressing thought is frequently excellent; but Syriac imagery and imagination never rise to the sub lime heights of the Hebrew writers. Syriac literature is at its best when it is dealing with all the phases of the Christian religion, history, biography, devotional works and the lives of the saints. Edessa seems to have been the earliest seat of the Christian-Syriac literature which spread rapidly to other parts of the country. This literary activity began probably in the 2d century though legend claims that it had begun in the time of the Apostles. It is in fact quite probable that the translation into Syriac of the Old Testament was made in the 1st century by Syriac Jews; and in the 2d century a compilation of the first four gospels is reported to have been made by Tar tian (q.v.) about 180. Many compilations and translations were made from the Old and the New Testaments during the following five cen turies. Among the early Syriac writers is Bardesanes, the Gnostic (d. 222). Historian, philosopher and poet, Se is reported to have written 150 hymns and to have been an au thority on astronomy. Most of these hymns have been lost; but some of them have been preserved in the Hymns of the Soul in the (Acts of Thomas.) His (Dialogue on Destiny.) which is still extant, gives a good idea of his imagination and his clearness of thought. To the following century belong Aphrates the author of homilies popular in his day and for years afterward; Ephraem (d. 337), the most famous commentator, poet and writer of exe getical discourses; and Aba, Balm, Zenobius and other disciples of the latter who filled much the same field as he. The following century was one of great activity in the Christian Church for it witnessed the separation of the Mesopotamian Christian Church from that of Rome and the division of the former into two sects, the Monophysites (q.v.) and the Nes
torians. This led to great literary activ ity throughout Syria within the body of the Christian society so that the 4th century marks the beginning of the great Syriac literary period which continued active until the Arabian conquest. One of the most noted writers of the 5th century was Isaac of Antioch (q.v.), abbot of a convent, He Wrote many hymns and poems and 191 metrical homi lies have been credited to him. He denounced the current abuses and luxury of his times much in the mood of the Hebrew prophets of an earlier age in a forceful manner and in a style rich in imagery and marked with imagina tion. A hundred or more of his poems still exist. Another writer of force belonging to this period was Narses of Maalletha. To the same century belong Ibas, bishop of Edessa, who was deposed from office on account of his Nestorian writings; Dadhisho, commentator ; Narsai, *Harp of the Holy Spirit,* poet and theological writer, many of whose poems sur vive; Jacob of Serugh, poet, and Philoxenus of Mabbogh, an excellent prose writer. Among the Syriac writers of the 16th century are John of Tella ; John bar Aphtonya, commentator, poet, hymn writer and biographer; Sergius of Rasain, scholar, translator and grammar ian; John of Ephesus, noted church his torian; Moses of Aggel, translator and writer; Marutha of Seleucia, commentator, sermon, hymn and epistle writer of note; Bodh, logician and translator of Persian tales, and Hannan of Hedhaiyabh, commentator, contro versialist and general writer of great activity. Among the historical works of interest written in Syriac are 'Chronicle of Edessa,' Chronicle of Dionysius of Tell Mahre' and the semi religious works of Zacharias of Metylene. The whole body of translations made into Syriac was very large and embraced works from most of the great literatures of the day. This translation continued on into the period of Arabic domination; but Syriac after the mid dle of the 7th century began to be a dead language. After this period it became the vehicle of the Church and of scholars much as Latin was regarded in Europe. Therefore, the works written in Syriac during the period of Arabian domination are for the most part of a learned nature and the literature tends to run largely to matters ecclesiastical, historical, philosophical and scientific. Among the most noted of the classical Syriac writers are Thabit ben Korrah (9th century) ; Theodor bar Choni (10th century) ; Dionysius bar Salibi (12th century), who wrote the 'History of the Crusades' ; Michael of Melitene (12th cen tury), 'History of the Abulfar of Gregory (13th century), commentator, gram marian and historian, and Abhdisho (14th century), critic, historical writer and author of a careful work on Syriac literature.
Baumstark, A., 'Die christ lichen Literaturen des Orients' (Leipzig 1911); Brackelmaun, C., 'Lexicon Seriacum' (Berlin 1895) ; 'Grundriss der vergleichenden Gram malik der semilischen (Berlin 1908 13) ; 'Syrische Grammatik' (Berlin 1913) ; Duval, R., 'La Litterature syriaque' (Paris 1907) ; McLean, A. J., 'Grammar of the Dia lects of Vernacular Syriac' (Paris 1907) ; Nestle, E., 'Syrische Grammatik' (Berlin 1888) ; Wilson, R. D., 'Elements of Syriac Grammar' (New York 1891) ; Wright, W., 'History of Syriac Literature' (London 1895).