The Monroe Doctrine was a protest against any action by European _powers which would extend their "Political System" to the new world. This utterance was founded on a new principle, the converse of the Policy of Isola tion. Monroe held that the eastern and west ern hemispheres were politically separated: the United States did not meddle in European af fairs, and European powers must not meddle in American affairs. Still deeper lay the be lief that European interference anywhere in South America might create centres of influ ence which would in the long run be dangerous to the United States.
The proposed joint action of Europe in America was at once given up; but the interest of the United States in Latin America for nearly a hundred years has been one of the most significant factors in our foreign policy. An effort was made in the Panama Congress (1826) to bring the American nations to gether; hut it was a part of the policy of the United States not to commit itself to the leader ship or defense of the neighboring powers.
Western Expansion •(1819-60).—The Mon roe Doctrine was not meant to be a self-deny ing principle which would prevent -annexation. Immediately after the War of 1812 the United States began to push with all its might toward the Southwest and Far West. In the treaty of 1819 for the cession of East Florida, Sec retary John Quincy Adams secured from Spain a withdrawal of all claims on Pacific Coast territory north of the 42d parallel. As a counterweight he consented to the line of the Sabine River as our southwest boundary. A movement of Americans into the Mexican province of Texas at once began, which in 1835 made that region an independent country, which at once sought admission into the United States. • This left the government face to face with Great Britain as the only other claimant to the immense Oregon country. A controversy with the British government over the Maine boundary was settled by a reason able compromise in 1842. The Oregon ques tion then became threatening; after, much dis cussion it was settled in 1846 by running the compromise line of the 49th parallel from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of Georgia, and thence through the straits of San Juan De Fuca to the Pacific Ocean.
This settlement of the Oregon question brought into sharper relief the future of Cali fornia, toward which President Polk bent his energies. In 1845 Texas was annexed as a State of the Union. In 1846 the United States declared war on Mexico and conquered, and occupied both California and New Mexico, which was the land bridge across the con tinent Vain attempts were made by President Pierce and President Buchanan from 1854 to 1859 to annex Cuba, part of Central America and more of Mexico. The only action taken
was the treaty of 1846 with New Granada and the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Great Britain in 1850, by which the United States assumed a special interest and responsibility for a future Isthmian Canal.
Civil War Diplomacy During the Civil War the prime policy of the United States was to insist that the Southern Confed eracy could never achieve independence, and that, therefore, any recognition of independence or any military or naval aid would be an af front to the United States. The old question of neutral trade came up in a new guise, when the United States blockaded most of the Con federate coast and freely captured cargoes of contraband. This involved a novel doctrine of continuous voyages, to the effect that cargoes and even vessels bound for Europe to a British or Spanish colonial port, thence to be reshipped to the Confederacy, could be captured in either stage of that transportation. Great Britain raised no objection to this doctrine. The United States violently protested against the fitting out of ships-of-war in neutral ports, especially the cruiser Alabama, which was built in an English shipyard.
After the war was over, the claims' for damages caused by such cruisers almost led to a breach with England. It was finally healed by the Treaty of Washington of 1871, in which Great Britain agreed to a set of rules which were practically a disavowal of the acts complained of. On this understanding the two countries went into the nominal arbi tration of Geneva in 1872; and the arbitral commission found Great Britain liable to the amount of $15,500,000.
The Canal and Immigration (1861-81).— Before the war ended, the United States, under the skilful guidance of Secretary Seward, was laying the foundations of a new and posi tive policy in Central America and the West Indies. In 1864 a treaty was negotiated with Honduras, giving special canal rights to the United States. In 1867 Seward took advantage of the proposition by Russia to cede Alaska for a moderate payment. He turned his atten tion also to the Caribbean region, negotiated an unsuccessful treaty for the Danish Islands and another for Santo Domingo. This latter proj ect was renewed and strongly urged by Presi dent Grant, who could not induce the Senate to approve it. The Cuban Revolution, from 1868 to 1878, deeply interested the United States; and toward the end a proposition was made to European powers to unite in stopping the war and relieving Cuba.