Sweckn.— Of the Scandinavian countries, Sweden has shown the strongest pro-German sentiment. Long and. close cultural and eco nomit associations made most members of the court (the queen is German), of army and business circles, of the universities and of the Conservative party generally, sympathetic to the Central Powers. For years the fear of a Russian advance across Sweden and Norway to warm water, and apprehension of Russian aggression in the Baltic, had made Sweden look to Germany for protection. This feeling was carefully stimulated from Germany. In the war, however, Sweden decided for neutrality, mobilized part of the army and made conunon cause with Norway and Denmark in defending their neutrality and their rights. A small hut aggressive "activist" party advocated interven tion on the side of the seemingly victorious Central Powers, with the hope of securing the Aaland Islands and Finland from Russia. The Socialists and Liberals were strongly for peace. Most of the people, e% en the Conservatives, whatever their sympathies, favored neutralitY. if possible. In January 1915 export of muni tions was forbidden. In 1916 submarines were forbidden to enter Swedigh waters. Apologies were secured for several violations of neutral ity, as in 1915, when Russian ships destroyed a German warship inside the three-mile limit, and in 1916 when a German cruiser fired on a Swedish submarine. In July 1916 Sweden closed the exit from the Baltic through Swed ish waters, but reopened it after a strong Eng lish protest. Perhaps by way of compensation, moo horses were sold to Germany. The acuon of Swedish diplomats in transntit ting German correspondence, notably the Lux burg dispatches frotn Argentina, aroused much unfavorable comment, and was not approved by Swedish opinion. Swedish-Ruesian relations improved somewhat in the course of the war. Trade was brisk. Railroad connections, long delayed for strategic reasons, were made. Through Sweden thousands of German and Russian invalided prisoners were exchanged, and much relief work was done. A crisis was caused (1916) when Russia fortified the Aaland Islands, but it passed when Russia and England guaranteed that the fortifications would be re moved after the war. The collapse of Russia removed the fear of that power. Sweden was particularly interested in Finland, where an im portant minority is Swedish. Beyond assisting refugees to escape, however, the Swedish gov ernment did not intervene. To preserve order, the Aaland Islands were occupied 19 Feb. 1918, and die action of Germany in displacing the Swedish forces 3 March increased the dislike and fear of Germany which had been growing since the submarine campaign grew more ruth less. To have the Baltic made a German lake, as for a time seemed inevitable, would have seriously threatened Swedish security.
Sweden also objected to British interference with imports and the mails, and by stopping mail for Russia (1915) became involved in a serious controversy. An arrangement was finally made reserving Sweden's right to claim damages later. Until 1916 Sweden refused to permit merchants to make the usual contracts with the Allies as to re-exports, and finally agreed only on condition that the Swedish gov ernment should supervise the working of the scheme in Sweden. In 1915 a Binned amount of cotton and coal was allowed to pass by England. England and Germany both wanted Swedish iron ore. By treaty Sweden was bound to furnish a certain amount to Germany, and the government refused to stop this export England however took an increasing share of the output.. To England Sweden exported tim ber for mine-props, in spite of the fact that Germany- declared this contraband and seized it whenever possible.
The food shortage was serious. Ordinarily over 12,000,000 bushels of cereals were imported, chiefly from Russia and Germany. Now four fif ths of this had to come from the United States, the rest from Argentina. Prices rose enormously. The government took control, for bidding exports, arranging for imports, selling food to the public at less than market prices, attempting to fix prices, requisitioning stores, rationing various articles, and finally adopting bread and sugar cards. The rye crop of 1916
was poor, partly because of lack of fertilizer. Fodder was scarce, dairy products fell off and many cattle had to be killed. A little food (butter and pork) was exchanged with Ger many for coal. When England cut off the sup ply of oleomargarine, butter had to be kept for home use. At home increased use of wood and development of water power helped the fuel shortage. Some coal was produced by the Spitzbergen mines. Coal imports for the first six months of 1916 were 2,859,750 tons; in the same period in 1917 they fell to 634,138 tons. In 1916-17 England cut off the supply of tan bark, thus crippling factories which had been making army shoes for the Central Powers. While many individuals made money out of war trade, and while bank deposits, imports and exports all showed an increase, the country as a whole suffered in many ways more than England.. Part of the war profits were used to buy out foreign owners of Swedish securities.
Some Swedish Socialists were active in try ing to bring the working .classes of all the belligerents together, particularly after the Russian Revolution. Stockholm was proposed as a place for the meeting, but Allied opposi tion prevented it. An internal controversy, which had begun before the war, raged around the question of national preparedness and over the degree to which the king might act inde pendently of the Ministry. Taxes and loans were needed to meet deficits. The elections of September 1917 wave a strong Socialist-Liberal majority and led to somewhat better relations with the Allies. In May 1918 by a trade agree ment with the Allies and the United States, Sweden allowed 400,000 tons of shipping to be chartered to the Allies, and joromised to facili tate the export of wood-pulp, steel and iron ore. In return linports of food, leather, oil, cotton, etc., principally from Argentina and Australia, were permitted. Re-export of course was forbidden.
The war strengthened the ties between the Scandinavian countries. At several conferences of the three kings and their advisers questions of common interest were discussed, and pro grarns of action decided upon. On several occasions identical notes were issued by the three governments (protesting against blockades and submarines, agreeing to Wilson's peace terms note), thus emphasizing Scandinavian solidarity. By interchange of products (e.g., Swedish sugar to Norway, Danish butter to Sweden) the economic distress was somewhat relieved.
Spain.— Spain was more fortunate than the northern neutrals in being farther removed from actual fighting. Nevertheless there was some danger of being drawn into the war, par ticularly through the German submarine cam paign. Spain had interests and sympathie-s with both groups. A common Latin culture and an interest in Mediterranean questions binds her to France and Italy. Colonial interests in North Africa make it imperative to keep on good terms with the Entente naval powers. (The queen is English). A larger proportion of Spanish trade has been with the United King dom and France than with any other country. On the outbreak of war, Spain took over French interests in Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1916 Spain gave assurance to France as to the Pyrenees boundary and Morocco, and withdrew some garrisons from the boundary of Portugal, then fighting as England's ally. On the other hand, trade relations with Germany had been getting closer. More German capital was being invested in Spanish enterprises. During the war it was thought that Germany wag planning to make Spain a base from iecover lost trade after the war. Thousands of Ger mans in Spain, directed from the embassy, carried on an energetic propaganda with con siderable success. England's hold on Gibraltar and the French advance in Morocco were em phasized. German victory was spoken of as certain. A number of newspapers were sus pected of receiving German money.