History.— Vienna appears to have been a Roman station in the 1st century. It was after ward included in Upper Pannonia and received the name of Vindobona. It was talcen and pillaged by Attila about 450. It was conquered by Charlemagne about 791, became the capital of the Margraviate of Austria in the 12th cen tury and municipal privileges were conferred upon it in 1221. In 1278 it became the seat of the Hapsburg dynasty. About 1365 the uni versity was founded. During the 14th and 15th centuries a share in civic government was ob tained by the craftsmen. In 1515 Emperor Maximilian I entertained at Vienna the king of Hungary and Bohemia and concluded mar riages of his children, by .which Hungary, Bohemia and Moravia were acquired by Austria. La 1529 Vienna was besieged by the Turks tin. der Soliman II, and again, in 1683, it was de fended against a Turkish army under Mohani xned IV. During the reigns . of Charles VI (1712-40) and Maria Theresa (1740-80) the city's prestige was enhanced and its popula tion more than doubled. After the battles of Austerlitz and Wagram it was held by the French for a short time. From 16 Sept. 1814 to 19 June 1815 the famous Congress of Vienna was in session, and the opinion has been re. peatedly expressed that the political reaction which followed retarded the prosperous devel opment of the city, which then had but 239,300 inhabitants, and that the insurrection of 1848 was required to clear the way for the intro duction of better conditions. The facts which claim our attention at present are these: Vienna secured the right of self-government by elective representatives at the accession of Emperor Francis Joseph, whose reign extended from 2 Dec. 1&48 to 21 Nov. 1916. Activity in build ing was stimulated by the removal of the forti fications in 1857 and by the Exhibition of 1873. Other manifestations of an enterprising spirit were noted and in half a century the popula tion has nearly quadrupled. This growth has taken place despste the Compromise of 1867 between Austria and Hungary, by the terms of which Budapest was made the capital of that part of the empire beyond the Leitha River which Vienna had long regarded as a political and social dependency. The two decades before the World War witnessed such developments as that of the transportation system, including the city railway and a network of surface lines, new waterworks, etc. A brief account of conditions in Vienna while the war was in prog ress is supplied by a resident, who writes that Vienna heard little of the actual fighting. 6The city is (in June 1917) full of people who seem bent on enjoyment, the cafes—where conver sation about the war is taboo— are full of people from morning till night, the restaurants, where everything except bread and potatoes can be obtained, if one's purse is long enough, are crowded; the opera and the theatres have nearly every seat booked in advance and the cinemas are filled at every performance. In the fashionable streets of the city there are on all sides fine shops full of the latest fashions which find purchasers even at the prevailing exorbitant prices.* In the Living Age, 15 Dec. 1917, another correspondent writes: 6But to the keen observer there are many curious dif ferences which show how deeply the stupendous war has affected Vienna. The question which touches the whole population, from the highest to the ,lowest, most nearly is that of the food supply. The state of semi-starvation at which the poorer classes have now arrived has come on so' gradually that they have almost come to regard it as natural and have ceased to wonder at it.* In August 1918 Italian airmen conunanded by .Capt. Gabriele d'Annunzio dropped copies of a manifesto over Vienna, the message telling of American participation in the war. In November 1918 conditions in Vienna were reported as follows: Little dis order; order being maintained by Marshal A. von Boog; many arrests on charges of con spiracy with Red. Guards to proclaim Bolshevist government; desperate conditions there owing to lack of food and coal. Austria had mean while appealed for an armistice (29 Oct. 1918); the abdication of Emperor Charles was an nounced 12 November and the German-Austrian republic proclaimed the same day. It was in connection with these events that the revolu tionary outbreak took place at Vienna, the soldiers forming Soviets and malcing demon strations against the Hapsburgs. On 16 Feb. 1919 the -Constitutional Assembly was elected. On 4 Sept. 1919 the Swiss Minister at Vienna brought to light a plan to restore commercial relations on a large scale between Vienna and New York.
Architecture, Painting and Only a few buildings dating from the period of the Middle Ages still remain, chief among which is the towering mass of Saint Stephen's (12th to 15th centuries), one of the most famous of cathedrals. The other archi tectural periods are distinguished as follows: That of the 17th century, mainly ecclesiastical; that of the 18th, baroque-palatial; the Bieder maier period, promoted by Francis I and Ferdi nand I; the Francis Joseph era; and the modern period, commencing about 1900, examples of which are the 20th century residences of private citizens, the new palaces, the city railway struc tures, the cottage quarter and the artists' colony buildings in Heiligenstadt. But after all it is
the °Ring,* with its monumental buildings, which gives the peculiar tone to Vienna, and the most beautiful edifice on the (Rine is the Votive Church, completed in 1879. This ap pears to be the original from which was taken the design of Saint Patricles Cathedral, New York City.
of which those of Germany and France pre dominated. It follows that there is no pre cisely national Austrian art, but rather an in tense and eclectic production of talents that are often distinguished but rarely personal and original. The early Vienna painters may well pass for Germans. Thus, J. E. von Steinle (born Vienna, 2 June 1810, died Frankfurt, 18 Sept. 1886); Joseph Fiihrich (Rantzau, 9 Feb. IWO —Vienna, 13 March 1876), and, more important in the same German environment, Ferdinand Waldmiiller (Vienna, 15 Jan. 1793 —23 Aug. 1865) and Moritz von Schwind (Vienna, 21 Jan. 1804—Munich, 8 Feb. 18:71) —all of whom Germany claimed as her own. Hans Malcart (Salzbourg, 29 May 1840 — Vienna, 3 Oct. 18&4) studied under Piloty in Munich. Michel Lieb, called Munkacsy (born at Munkacs, 10 Oct. 1844; died at Endenich, 19C0), whose (Christ before Pilate' and (Blind Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters' are so well known in America, was only by residence for a short time after 1865 connected with the Viennese school. We mention also Hynais, born at Vienna in 1854; Gustav Klimt, first president of the Viennese °secession,* Karl Moll and Bernatzik.
Sculpture owed more than any other art to Francis Joseph, although that ruler understood art in general and the value of its cultivation to a nation, and for that reason 6encouraged it in every way, with his voice, his presence and his purse.* Distinguished sculptors were: Franz Zauner (1746-1822), director of the Vien nese Academy and author of the neo-classic equestrian statue of Joseph II; I. M. Fischer, successor to Zauner at the acadetny; Leopold Kisling (1770-1827) ; J. IClieber (1773-1850) ; J. N. Schaller (1777-1842); Hans Gasser (1817 68), and V. Pilz (1816-96). The new school of sculpture includes Canciani, Luksch, Franz Metzner, Adolf Bohm and Schimkowitz. The last named worked under a Viennese sculptor in New York, the late Karl Bitter.
Music.— Music has held a place of honor even from the time of Archduke Albert I. in tbe first years of the 13th century. Early in the 17th century the court intetested itself in musical prochictions. Archduke Ferdinand III, who wrote the first German opera, brought the Italian opera, then recently discovered, to Vienna, and his son, Leopold I, was an ac complished musician and a patron of music masters. Charles VI founded a musical academy at Vienna. With Maria Theresa's reign there began a series of resident composers and mu sicians, Gluck being the first of that illustrious line. He lived in the Wiedner Hauptstrasse. Next came Haydn, who, though not born in Vienna, as a boy was chorister in Saint Stephen's and who died at his home in the Viennese street now called Haydngasse. Mozart lived in Vienna; the city's fame brought Bee thoven from Bonn and in Vienna fame came to him Schubert was born in Vienna in 1797 and died there in 1828. Czerny was a Viennese; Joseph Launer, creator of the city's folk-music, and Johann Strauss the first, creator of the waltz, were inseparable friends in Vienna; the sons of Strauss, Johann the second and Ed ward, duplicated in the same field their father's successes, and another true Viennese was Otto Nicolai, composer of the 'Merry Wives.> Brahms lived for 34 years in Vienna and there Schumann wrote much of his best music.
Education and Charities.— The university has a staff of more than 450 professors and lec turers, and, in normal years, about 6,400 stu dents and 1.200 occasional hearers. The /mpe rial Library contains 1,000,000 volumes. includ ing 8,000 incunabula;. 33,000 manuscripts; 350, 000 engravings; 50,000 pieces of music and 30,000 autographs. One of the greatest of all art galleries is the Vienna Art History Museum. Other important institutions are: Academy of Science, Natural History Museum, Austrian Museum of Art and Industry (on the plan of the South Kensington Museum), Academy of Fine Arts, Conservatory of Music and Oriental Academy. Secondary education is furnished mainly by the Gymnasia and Realschulen. There are also governmental technical high schools. Statistics of the latter for the winter semester of 1915-16, as compared with the win ter semester of 1913-14, show 183 teachers and (in 1913-14) 3,177 students, but only 639 stu dents in 1915-16. For the Vienna Agricultural' High School we find 86 teachers and (in 1913 14) 1,135 students, but only 186 students in 1915-16. This shows the enormous decline caused by the war. The most famous of the city's charity institutions are the hospitals: the great general hospital; the epidemics and clin ical hospitals; the Rudolph, the Jewish, the Brothers of Mercy, Children's and Convent hospitals; and those of Princess Stephanie, Em peror Francis Joseph and Empress Elizabeth.
Consult Benedite, L, 'La Peinture au XIX ietne Slick' (Paris, n.d.), and Levitus, A. S., 'Imperial Vienna' (London and New York 1905).
Mammon Wilcox.