AFRICA AND AMERICA.
Great Britain in Egypt and the Sudan.— The interest of modern Europe in Egypt was first stirred by Napoleon's romantic campaign there in 1798. French interest survived during the first half of the 19th century, and in 1869 a French engineer, Ferdinand de Lesseps, com pleted the Suez Canal. Great Britain turned her attention tot following the explo tions of Baker anElY•!thers ra in the '60's.' She had particular reasons for desiring a dominat ing control over the Suez CanaL In addition to the general commercial advantages to be de rived from its control, it provided the shortest water-route to India and Australasia, and Great Britain could scarcely regard with com placency the spectacle of a rival in possession of so vital a point for British imperial communica tion. A fortunate combination of circumstances the French defeat and indemnity of 1870 and the contemporaneous bankruptcy of the khedive — made it possible in 1875 for Disraeli to pur chase some 177,000 shares of canal stock from the khedive for f4,000,000 ($20,000,000) after France had refused the offer. The reckless financial operations of the khedive led to the establishment of a dual control over Egyptian finances by Great Britain and France in 1877. Some five years later an Egyptian nationalist revolt broke out, led by native officers who were restive tinder the domination of foreigners. France was prevented from intervening to sup press the revolt by the opposition of Clemen ceau and other radical anti-imperialists, and Great Britain had to crush the revolt unaided in the summer of 1882. The result was to exclude France from a parity in the control of Egypt and to make Egypt practically an English .pro tectorate, although this relationship was not formally proclaimed until 18 Dec. 1914, and Egypt was controlled during this period by a British °financial adviser' (Lord Cromer, 1883 1907; Eldon Gorst, 1907-11; Lord Kitchener, 1911-14). The British occupation has brought great material advantages to both Egypt and Great Britain. Archaic and oppressive native customs and institutions have been uprooted; env industrial methods have been introduced; great public works, especially irrigation projects, have been completed; and the finances have been put on a stable and scientific basis. Great Britain has been rewarded by the possession of not only the key to the British empire, but also the basis for the development of her interests in the 'Cape-to-Cairo' project and for the ex tension of her dominion in western Asia and Arabia, and by the control of the foreign trade and the valuable cotton crop of Egypt. See
EGYPT.
South of Egypt is the great district of the Sudan. Nominally under Egyptian control, the inefficiencv of that administration enabled a group of Mohammedan fanatics under El Mandi to secure control of that region and to massacre the distinguished English soldier, Gen. Charles George Gordon, and his forces at Khartum in January 1885. Gladstone took no active steps to avenge the murder, but by 1896 some action was rendered necessary to protect Egypt from invasion and to safe ard the Egyp tian water-supply. This task ol the Sudan was entrusted to Gen. Horatio Herbert Kitchener, who completed the conquest on 2 Sept. 1b98 and received as his reward elevation to the peerage. The British conquest of the Sudan was followed by a diplomatic crisis of the first importance for subsequent history. At the same time that Kitchener was subduing the Sudanese a French force under Marchand was moving eastward across Africa to the sources of the Nile, and it arrived at Fashoda in the lower Sudan on 12 July 1898. Pushing south ward after his victories Kitchener reached the same spot two months later. War was imminent, hut the skilful handling of the situa tion by the French foreign minister. Delcasse, not only averted hostilities, hut also secured a potential An.,;1.- French alliance which was still further strieirthen,d in confirmed in 1911 and green practical demonstration in 1914 The World \\ ar completed the occupation of the Egyptian area by the British Turke)'s ac tion In the ( cnIral l'owers in Notem her 1914 furni•hed thi pretext for the British declaration of the Egyptian protectorate on 18 Dec. 1914. The seizure of German East Africa by Great Britain and the approval of this ac tion by the Peace Conference gives Great Brit ain unobstructed control of a broad strip of territory from Cairo to Cape Town and assures the future hegemony of Britain in African im perialism. At the same time, her domination of this district probably will not rt main un challenged on account of the persistc-nse of a strong Egyptian nationalist movement which is not likely to subside. ilusail0 HUMERI; SUDAN.