The thought of Zechariah shows much simi larity to that of the earlier prophets, with which he is evidently familiar, and his phraseology also shows the impress of their influence. He demands faithfulness to Yahweh and the ob servance of ethical standards, in accord with the highest teaching of the pre-exilic prophets.
The activity of angels is specially prominent in these messages of Zechariah. The super human adversary, Satan, also appears here for the first time, hi, 1-2.
There are practically no resemblances be tween chapters ix-xiv and i-viii, while there are many differences. The first chapters, those of Zechariah, are precisely dated, the second part has no dates; the first part has % isions, the second not; the first part makes the temple especially prominent, it is hardly alluded to in the second part; the first part reflects the Persian the second part has no certain references to it; and the peaceful outlook of the first part has become warlike in the second part, and is characterized, in cer tain portions, by a bitterness of feeling toward other nations hardly paralleled elsewhere, see ix. Iff, 13ff, xii, Iff, etc. The nations men tioned are not those of the Persian period, Hadrach and Damascus, ix, 1, Hamath. ix, 2, Greece, if the text is correct, ix, 13, and Assyria andt, x, 10. The Messianic picture of the ix, 9-10, is the ordinary one of a Messianic king of the future, his reign in this case to be preceded by the destruction of enemy nations, in contract with Zechariah's concep tion of Zeruhlubel, the prince already present, as the Messianic king, himself bringing de liverance.
The question to what period chapters ix-xiv belong has been much disputed, which is also true of the further question whether they are the work of one author, or of more than one.
The following features are claimed to he references to a pre-exilic situation. The north ern kingdom, it is said, is still in existence, ix, 10. 13; xi. 14; Egypt and Assyria are contem porary nations of the writer. x. 10f ; idolatrous conditions, 10, 1 t, are thought to indicate this period; and the nations mentioned with threats, ix, I-7 are said to he those of this time, see 1 Amos i. 3-10. The pre-exilic date usually as signed is about the time of Amos.
There is a growing tendency, however, to assign these chapters to the time after the exile, and usually to the Greek period. Little dependence• can be placed on the mention of the Greeks as a present power, ix, 13, for there is considerable reason to think that these words may be an addition. The nations which are here denounced were prominent during the time of conflict between the Seleucidx of Syria and the Ptolemies of Egypt. Egypt and Assyria, on this view, designate the Ptolemies and the Seleucidse; such a usage probably has parallels elsewhere, as in Micah v, 51, which at least uses the term Assyria after Assyria had passed away. These chapters contain evident allusions to the captivity, ix, II f, it. 6-9. There is no reference to a Davidic king as reigning in Jerusalem, the Davidic family being like the other noble families, xii, 7, 12ff. The general character of the message is not like that of pre-exilic prophecy, it has characteristics which are usually called apocalyptic, found in Ezekiel xxxviii-xxxix, Joel iii, Isaiah xxiv-xxsii, etc.
These characteristics are partly vagueness and obscurity; in part the form of presentation of the future, the nations arc to attack Israel and Yahweh is to destroy them; and especially the great extravagance of representation, found particularly in chapter xiv. The priestly tone, manifesting itself in the great emphasis upon the externals of worship and upon hob. ness, is also a mark of the later time.
'The inconclusiveness of some of the argu ments given above for a pre-exilic date has al ready been noted. Further, the mention of the northern kingdom is not out of harmony with the postexilic period, for a return of Ephraim along with Judah was a part of the prophetic expectation, see Ezekiel xxxsii, loll. Idolatry is not unknown after the exile, contrary to the view often maintained, see Malachi iii, S.
The indications which have been mentioned point to the Greek period for chapters ix-xiv. There are many obscurities in these chapters, so that the interpretation is not always cer tain. But there are variations in the repre sentation which make it probable that these chapters are not entirely the work of one au thor, or of entirely the same period. Especially to be noted is the optimistic tone in ix. 11-xi, 3, in which the restoration of the people from captivity under favorable national conditions is indicated In xi. 4-17, xiii. 7-9. however, the tone is one of pessimism. Here severe o sion by their captors has aroused intense ness toward them. Such oppression seems to have characterized the reign of Ptolemy Philo pator, 222-205 a.c.. after the battle of Raphia, 217 Lc. These portions, therefore, seem to have been written after 217 B C., while the more optimistic portions are somewhat earlier under more favorable conditions. It may be that the earlier portion includes all of ix, 1-xi, 3, and the later xi, 4-xiv, 21. But it is also quite pos sible that there are more than two authors.
In the whole of chapters ix-xiv the principal thought is the future expectation of the In the first part it is a messace of hope and national restoration, accompanied by punish ment of the enemies. In the second part there is a note of discouragement, finding expression in bitterness against the oppressors. The destruction of these oppressors is por trayed with expressions of hate in chapter xiv. The ethical teaching concernine the present-day conditions, so 4.1 the earlier prophets and of Zechariah himself, is not found here. The hope for the future of the nation is principally in Yahweh's manifesta tion of his power against the nations, rather than in the co-operation of the nation with God.
Bibliography.— Barnes, W. E., and Zechariah Bible,' Cambridge 1917) ; Creelman, Harlan, (An Introduction to the Old Testament' (pp. 274-279), New York 1917) ; Driver, S. R., Bible,' Edinburgh 1906) ; Mitchell, H. G., (Haggai and Zechariah> Criti cal Commentary,' New York 1912).