For everyday wear the sandal was used by the Romans—similar in form and material to that of the Greeks. Due, however, to a more extended world intercourse, the Romans came into contact with other nations and peoples, and from these they absorbed, among other things, a diversity of dress, including footwear. Shoes, boots and buskins were common. The boot, with greavelike top—often faced with metal — was worn by the Roman soldier and was known as the caligo (diminutive, caligula). It was from this word that the Emperor Caligula received the cognomen by which his tory knows him — from his military career. Like the Greeks, each order of society affected a different style of footwear. The middle classes wore the calms:, the name that became generic for the shoe of all classes. As is the custom among Eastern nations to-day, it was the custom to remove the shoes while indoors, particularly while reclining at the table, from which was derived the expression "calceos ponere — to put on the shoes — meaning to rise from the table. Similarly, "calceos mutare'— to change shoes — signified becom ing a senator, the shoes of the latter being of a special style, reaching to the middle of the leg, colored red, and bearing a silver crescent (lunate penis, or Patricia tuna) just above the foot. The shoes of men were generally black, while those of the women were of various colors. Red shoes for men usually indicated the holder of some public office. The soccus (whence the English word "sock')— a slipper like shoe — was worn by comedians, and the cothssrmss, a heavy-soled buskin, similar in form and name to that of the Greeks, was worn by tragedians. From this we have the expression "sock and buskin,' signifying com edy and tragedy. Similar to the soccus was the crepida, a sandal shoe, and the baxa or baxea, derived from the Greeks, originally of plaited leaves, twigs and strips of willow and as such worn by both comedians and philosophers; later, when made of purple leather embroid ered with gold, worn by women. With both the Greeks and Romans we find in the tragedian's buskin the forerunner of the modern heel. Tertullian (de Spectaculis) finds much offense in the "lofty buskin, impiously striving to add a cubit' (1.4505 feet) to the tragedian's stat ure. The Romans, probably from their inter course with the Lombards, wore a stocking of wool, known as the a footwear acces sory that, when once known, has been found indispensable wherever boots and shoes are worn.
It is in the Middle Ages, with its Crusades, Feudalism and Renaissance of art and culture, that modern footwear had its beginning. In the cold northern climes where protection against the elements was a necessity, substan tiality and warmth of costume were of prime importance, and the heavy boot, with its thick sole and the beginning of the heel, was one rer suit. Feudalism, with its detached communi ties, chiialry, with its trappings, and the begin ning of the guild system of artisan activity were incentive of individuality and improve ment — by each baron having craftsmen for his every need, through feudal rivalry and by the development of the master and apprentice system, the basis of true workmanship. To appreciate this, one may with advantage exam ine the paintings, illumination, wood-cuts and other art remains illustrative of the beginnings and growth of modern Europe. To specify the styles of footwear alone would be to catalogue the ever-changing needs and whims of individ ual communities and degrees of society. The peasants, as a rule, where footwear was re quired, wore a simple moccasin-like shoe fitted to the foot by thongs — crudely tanned or of rawhide, sometimes with the hair side within. The Bayeux Tapestry shows King Harold on his journey to Bosham, on horseback, wearing a heelless slipper-like shoe with spurs. A
Saxon chief is shown in an ancient illumination with similar footgear topped by a leggin simi lar in appearance to the modern puttee, while other persons of prominence are shown (Cot ton MS, Claud. B. 4) with ankle-high shoes with sharp or turned-up point. During the time of Edward II we find low shoes, with heels and large buckles, and in the reign of Richard II high, tight boots, a different color for each leg, without heels and with pointed toes so long that they were frequently attached to the knee, were worn by courtiers. Follow ing armor and its attendant protection, boots extending to the knee or. higher came into vogue as a prerogative of the knights. This chivalric footgear has endured until the pres ent, being worn by Marshal Brissac's Dragoons in 1660 and the French Dragons-Gardes and English Horse Guards of to-day. This boot, known in English as the °jack boot," originated in Spain for the use of men of rank. Due to its finish, from its peculiar method of tanning and finish, the leather (originally goatskin) from which it was made took the name °cordo van,' from Cordova, and the name has been retained, being now used, as the designation of tanned horsehide. Likewise, the term — a worker in cordwain, a shoe maker — is derived from the same source. It was in France, however, that the greatest lib erties were taken in footgear styles and the court shoemaker of the various French kings became an important personage. Every con ceit that luxury could suggest was lavished on footwear. The court slipper and the low shoe were brought to a relative perfection — the name °Louis" or French heel being that used to-day with the most popular style of ladies' shoe. Silk stockings, fancy garters, jeweled buckles and similar ornaments were added re finements. However, from the standpoint of foot-comfort there was little improvement un til the middle of the 19th century. It was only around 1785 that °right" ,and °left" lasts were introduced into England, formerly a boot or shoe suiting either foot. In addition, the or custom-made shoe or boot, while durable, was made without consideration of the anatomical principles to which it should conform.
Due to the utilization of mechanical proc esses; beginning in the early half of the 19th century, a standardization in manufacture and styles has resulted generally. Notwithstand ing this, there are many parts of the world where, due to racial or other prejudices, little change has been made. In China the sandal, made of woven reeds, is still worn by the labor ing classes, while merchants and others of the higher classes wear a loose, thick-soled, quilted slipper. It is the custom yet, to some extent, for women, their feet forcibly cramped from childhood, to wear diminutive shoes that throw the weight of the body upon the toes, incapacitating their wearers from any strenu ous activity. The people of India, Turkey and Arabia, in their daily life, still cling to the ornamental sandal and low shoe, often of ex pensive leather and highly ornamented, that their ancestors wore. In Russia and the Bal kan States, the high, heavy top-boot, made by hand, is yet worn by both men and women heavy, weather-proof footgear being a neces sity of northern Europe. In Holland, Bel gium, France and Germany, wooden shoes (known as °sabots") and leather shoes with wooden soles are worn largely by laborers both men and women —a form of footwear ideally adapted for wearing in dairies and other damp places. They are even beginning to be manufactured in large quantities in the United States for domestic use. In parts of Spain are worn sandals, slippers and shoes made of "esparto" grass (Stipa tenacissima), light in weight and enduring for a generation or more.