History.— The history of the Roman Catho lic Church may be divided into three great epochs: (1) Christian Antiquity, embracing the first seven centuries, during which Christian civilization was chiefly Greek and Roman. (2) The Middle Ages, from the 8th century to the 16th, characterized by the Church's action among the various peoples of north and central Europe, who were molded into organized na tions by her influence. (3) The Modern Age, from the rise of Protestantism to the present day, during which the Germanic nations sepa rated from the Church and attached them selves to various sects, and the Church has had to struggle against the modern, infidel spirit in science and government.
The first epoch contains two peridds. First comes an era of persecution, during the strug gle with paganism, which was terminated by the edict of Milan (313) ; then, an era of develop ment in definitions of dogma against the tacks of heresy. The second epoch embraces four periods: I. The conversion of the bar barians. II. The development of the Western Empire and the Church's struggle to maintain her independence (800-1073). III. The su premacy of the Church maintained (1073-1300). IV. Attacks on the Church's supremacy, from Boniface VIII to Protestantism.
During the third epoch three periods may be distinguished: 1. The period of religious war fare, ending with the Peace of Westphalia, 1648. II. From 1648 to the French Revolution, the era of established Churches. III. Dawn to the present day: Neo-paganism in science and life, the age of unrestrained freedom to accept or deny the truths of religion.
Even while the Church was undergoing cruel persecution, she was also developing her dis cipline and defending her doctrines against the pagans and heretics. From the first three cen tunes have come down to us the valuable works of Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin, Clement of Alex andria, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian and many others. The mightier struggle with heresy, and her marvelous growth after she emerged from the catacombs, gave renown to Athanasius, Basil, the Gregories in the East and West, Chrysostom, the Cyrils, Hilary, Ambrose, Je rome, Augustine, Leo and a host of other Christian writers, of whose works the modern world knows very little. The growth of mo nasticism is one of the glories of this age. Monks and nuns consecrated their lives to God's service by prayer and study and labor, thus preserving the ancient civilization from utter destruction by the barbarians, and prepar ing for the Church the means of converting these barbarians and transforming them into the civilized communities of Europe. The intimate union which existed between Church and State gave rise to the Holy Roman Empire (q.v.) and to the great body of laws by which, their mutual relations were regulated. Frequent at tempts were made later to subject the Church to the Empire. They were frustrated by the Popes, and especially by Gregory VII, after whom comes the glorious period of vigorous life and eminent learning. Among the orders that were then founded we may mention the Car thusians, Cistercians, Franciscans, Dominicans and Servites, fruitful in numerous saints and scholars. The Church boasts of Saint Anselm, Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Saint Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, Saint Bernard and others. It was also the age of Crusades (q.v.) for the recovery of Pales tine. The 14th and 15th centuries are noted for the revival of interest in pagan literature, the sad exile of the Popes at Avignon and frequent movements to effect a much-needed reformation of morals. In this work, many rejected the divine authority of the Church and were cast out as heretics; they are generally regarded as forerunners of Martin Luther (q.v.), who succeeded in separating whole sec tions of Germany from the Church, and became the occasion for the counter reformation that was effected by men like Francis de Sales, Ignatius Loyola and Peter Canisius during the 16th century, and especially by the great work of the Council of Trent (1545-63). In this
same period, millions of pagans were brought into the Church by the heroic labors of her missionaries, notably in South America, India, Ethiopia and Japan. England, under Henry VIII and Elizabeth, renounced the supremacy of the Pope, made a state religion of its own, and by the penal laws almost annihilated the Catholics. France remained Catholic, but be coming infected with Jansenism and Gallican ism (qq.v.), and later with atheism and social ism, brought about the utter disorganization of Continental society. In the reconstitution of the shattered nations, Napoleon (q.v.) thought to make the Papacy his tool, and thus ruin the Church; but he failed, and the 19th century witnessed the gradual revival of the Church in almost all European countries, and its stu pendous growth in the United States and other English-speaking countries. Catholic emancipa tion in England (1829), the Tractarian move ment (see TRACTARIANISM) in the Established Church, that resulted in so many converts to Rome, and the restoration of the Catholic hier archy (1850), have given Catholics prominence in English life. In France, though the people are loyally Catholic, the government is engaged in controversy with the Church and in the at tempt to control Catholic education. When the French garrison was withdrawn from Rome in 1870, the Papal states and the city of Rome were annexed and added to the Italian kingdom. For the past 34 years the Pope has never left the Vatican Palace. Shorn of their earthly kingdom, Pope Pius IX (q.v.) and Leo XIII (q.v.) witnessed the attempt of Bismarck (q.v.), in Germany, to subject the Catholic Church to the state; but they witnessed also the failure of the attempt and the repeal of almost all the iniquitous laws. Persecution served only to unite all Catholics and revealed to them the power of united action. In continental United States the Church has grown from 244,500 in 1820 to 17,416,303 in 1918. This great in crease has been due mainly to immigration from Europe and Canada. Irish, Germans, French Canadians, Italians, Poles and Bohemians have come in large numbers. Meeting with no offi cial opposition, the Church has prospered and is regarded even by many non-Catholics as a strong power for the preservation of the re public from the new social dangers that threaten the United States as well as the whole civilized world.
The activity of the Church in the mission field was almost destroyed by the wholesale confiscations of the French Revolution. As soon as order had been established in Europe, the missions revived, and, especially since Greg ory XVI, have spread to every land of the world. Dioceses are mapped out and bishops appointed as soon as the circumstances warrant. The reorganization of the Congregation De Propaganda Fide by Pius IX, with separate sec tions for the Latin and the Oriental Churches, has been of great advantage. College, institutes and special religious congregations have been founded in various cities of Europe for work in the foreign missions. The Association for the Propagation of the Faith is the largest of the societies among the laity for the collection of funds. Missions are also conducted with success in the Oriental Churches in communion with the Holy See. These Churches hold the same doctrines as the Latin Church, but have special rites, discipline and liturgical language. There are four chief groups: I. The Greek, subdivided into Greek proper, Melchite, Slav (which is Ruthenian and Bulgarian) and Ru manian. II. The Syrian, subdivided into Syrian proper, Syro-Chaldean (which also included the Malabar) and Maronite. III. The Coptic, which is Egyptian and Abyssinian or Ethiopian. IV. The Armenian. Pope Leo XIII was much interested in these eastern churches, and had the joy of receiving many converts into com munion. For bibliography see article CATHOLIC CI1URCH IN THE UNITED STATES.