England in the 17th century was making no fictile wares worth comment. Her upper classes were using imported Delft and German stoneware (termed by them Cologne ware). The Staffordshire potteries had a considerable output of low-priced roughly modeled wares, termed these days °peasant Tygs, puzzle jugs, posset pots, °cottage etc., were their art (?) or showpieces. Their decoration was done in raised slip poured from a spout or aquillo (like confectioners' work). By 1673, John Dwight had started a factory at Fulham, where he made a very fine stone ware (termed °Cologne and some truly artistic delicately executed statuary. About 1691, the two brothers Elers, from Holland, started making very fine salt-glazed stoneware in Staffordshire. It was of the finest texture body and perfect execution with sprigged (stamped) decoration. Following in the Elers path came Astbury, Thomas Wedgwood, Ralph Shaw (1733). A white Derbyshire clay pro duced °Crouch till 1720. Bristol, Vauxhall and Lambeth also made salt-glaze stoneware, and Burslem (Staffordshire), by 1750, had 60 small factories, and exports to Holland and Germany were large. Enamel polychrome decoration and gilding was done on some of this stoneware. By 1780 cream-colored earthenware had taken the place of stoneware and came into use over the entire civilized world, the industry propagated by Warburtons, Wedgwoods, Turners, Mayer and other Staf fordshire potters. Thomas Whieldon, between 1740 and 1780, produced clever vari-colored pastes (agate, tortoiseshell, etc.) and novel forms. Josiah Spode (Whieldon's apprentice) and his son became noted for their °black basalt," cream color, transfer-print decoration, jasper and other wares. Josiah Wedgwood and his contemporaries, John Turner, Henry Palmer, Josiah Spode, Ralph Wood, in the mid dle of the 18th century brought the earthen ware product of the Staffordshire potteries to a stage of fine art. Wedgwood's most famous ware was the beautiful jasper (of his own invention) in vases, plaques, medallions, etc., displaying the lovely reliefs of Flaxman and other artists. Other bodies were ware, Queen's ware, basalts, °encaustic)) (imitating Greek terra cottas) emanating from Wedg wood's factory, °Etruria.)) Liverpool turned out its tin enameled (Delft) ware, and, by 1755, Sadler and Green had established the reputa tion of their transfer-print decoration process, and the °Herculaneum)" factory made prolific quantities of artistic stoneware. Leeds was noted for its cream colored ware; Swinton pro duced °brown china') with its glaze. Other well-known earthenware potter ies were at Newcastle, Sunderland, Bristol (see Manor.), Derby (see DERBY), Swansea, Mort lake, Caughley (Salopian ware) with its °wil low pattern,'" Coalport, etc.
Chinese porcelain ware was still a costly luxury, and, while Delft proved a less expen sive, clever substitute, the European ambition was to produce its own true porcelain. Lacking the requisite earths imitations they attained large proportions in faience (enamel) ware made in the factories of Strassburg, Franken thal, Nuremberg, Hoechst, in Germany; Milan and Capo di Monte, in Italy; Roerstrand and Marieberg, in Sweden ;Lyons, Niderviller, Liine ville, Lille, Saint Cloud, Sceaux, Marseilles, in France.
European. Porcelain.— The ever increasing shipments of porcelain from China at ever de clining cost in the 18th century brought failure to the European faienceries. The Oriental com petition forced further researches for true porcelain earths. Florence, in the 16th cen tury, had for a few years produced soft (artifi cial) porcelain. Saint Cloud, by the 17th cen tury, was making an artificial porcelain, and rival factories started up at Mennecy, Chan tilly and Vincennes, in France. The latter plant was moved, in 1756, to Sevres, where Louis XV took it over and subsidized it. It produced work of the highest style of the art in a lovely mellow body of artificial porcelain. In 1768 kaolin earth was discovered in France and by 1772 was producing its noted delicate soft porcelain. See Skvazs; PORCELAIN, etc.
But Boettger, in Germany (1708), discovered the true porcelain earth first, and a factory was established at Meissen (near Dresden), soon to be shipping its wares through Europe. (See DRESDEN). In spite of the Meissen workers being kept in military seclusion, the secret of hard porcelain manufacture leaked out, and we find porcelain factories opened in: Vienna (1718) ; Capo di Monte (1742) ; Saint Petersburg (1745); • Hoechst (1746); Fuerstenberg (1746); Berlin 0750) ; Frankenthal (1755) • Nymphen. berg (1758); Ludwigsburg (1758); Copen hagen (1756) • Madrid (1760), known as Buen Retiro. In England porcelain was first made,
in 1730, at Bow; it was artificial body, largely glass and ground Chinese porcelain (some American clay). William Duesbury pur chased the • factory in 1776, when it was re moved to Derby. (See Bow). Chelsea made soft porcelain from 1745, or earlier. William Duesbury purchased the works in 1770 and ran it till in4, when it was removed to Derby. (See CHELSEA.) The Derby soft porcelain fac tory ran from 1756 to 1849. (See DERBY). At Worcester a factory was started in 1751. It made artificial porcelain till 1783, then hard porcelain. Robert Chamberlain started an op position factory about 1789. The two factories combined in 1840. Thomas Grainger estab lished a factory in Worcester soon after 1801. Several partnership changes were made, after which Grainger ran the factory himself till his death in 1839. (See WORCESTER.) William Billingsley (a decorator from Worcester and Derby factories) started a factory in 1796 at Pinxton, but left in 1800 and started another factory at Nantgarw, in 1811, which was closed in 1814. These factories of Billingsley made ware from his wonderfully translucent but hopelessly costly, glassy paste formula. Swan sea, besides earthenware, produced, from 1814, translucent (porcelain) ware under Billingsley's formula for several years. Lowestoft produced a soft paste porcelain in 1756 and continued, probably, till 1761. The por celain beloved of American collectors is pure Chinese hard porcelain.
England's first production of hard (true) porcelain was started through the discovery of kaolin (about 1758) by William Cookworthy of Plymouth. A factory was started there in 1764, to be purchased (1770) by Richard Champion, of Bristol, and soon moved to the latter city. (See PLYMOUTH ). Bristol porce lain, likewise, was a financial failure and Cham pion sold out the factory (1781) to a New Hall pottery.
Modern Bone porcelain (called also "standard?' porcelain) became a regulation factory paste composition, used by all English factories, when (1800) Josiah Spode's son started the use of the simple mixture of bone-ash, china stone and china clay. The ease gained and the low price of production of bone porcelain ruined all competition against it, and it remains stand ard to this day. Royal Worcester and Crown Derby wares are still leaders in Great Britain in art products. The Wedgwood fac tory (Etruria) continues its output of jasper and other fancy wares. Other leading pot teries of this and last century are those of Mintons (see Mirrroms), and of Copelands and Doultons stoneware potteries. Italy produces many imitations of the old pieces. Sevres continued producing the finest art work in soft porcelain, until (under Brongniart), about 1800 she turned to making hard paste body. In the last century Sevres worked out a cameo style of relief (pate sur pate) which Solon did master work on, till 1870, when he continued the delicate method at Mintons. In France Theodore Deck and Taxil Doat became re nowned creative ceramic artists. Sevres revived (in 1850) faience making alongside of her superb porcelain ware. (See Skvars). French modern faience, in its perfect technique and beautiful painted decoration, takes a place in the plastic arts alongside the finest porcelain. Limoges grew to become a leading porcelain centre in the last century; the great American factory' of Havilands is there. Berlin enlarged her ceramic palette and has done rich relief work in colored plant life and figures. The Berlin utransparenciesx' in delicate porcelain re lief became famous; her dipped then fired lace produces clever effects. The pottery was re moved to Charlottenburg in 1870. Seger's re searches into Oriental processes produced a flambe and a sang de bceuf glaze of great beauty. See CHINESE CERAMICS.
Bibliography.—Borrmann, 'Moderne Kera niik> (Leipzig 1902) ; Brongniart, AL, and Salvetat, A., (Traite des arts (Paris 1877) ; Birch, S., 'History of Ancient Pottery> (London 1873) ; Gamier, E„ 'Dic tionnaire de la Ceramique) (Tours 1882); Graesse and Jaennicke, 'Guide de l'Amateur de Porcelain et Faience) (Dresden 1901) ; Jac quemart, A., 'History of the Ceramic Art' (London 1873) ; Jaennicke, F., 'Die gesamte keramische Literatur> (Stuttgart 1882); Jervis, W. P., 'Encyclopedia of (New York 1902) ; Marryatt, Joseph, 'A History of Pottery and Porcelain) (London 1868) ; Solon, M. L., 'Ceramic Literature> (London 1910, an exhaustive bibliography) •, Burgess, F. W., 'Old Pottery and Porcelain) (New York 1915) ; Litchfield, F., 'Pottery and Porcelain> (London 1912).