Ceylon was known to the Greeks as Tap robane. In 543 B.C. it was conquered by Vijaya, a prince from the mainland of India, and for several centuries the island enjoyed great pros perity under the generally beneficent rule of his dynasty. The Hindu immigrants brought with them the civilization of their own country, and a great part of Ceylon became covered with towns and villages. Several of Vijaya's suc cessors had to contend with invading Malabars, and these ultimately secured the sovereignty. A restoration of the line of Vijaya in the 1 lth and 12th centuries contributed to the return of something of the ancient grandeur of the is land. Little was known regarding it in Europe until 1505, when the Portuguese established a regular intercourse with Ceylon, being en couraged thereto by a native king. The Portu guese were subsequently expelled by the Dutch in 1658, after a stubborn struggle of 20 years' duration. The Dutch soon opened up an exten sive and profitable trade with Holland, and they constructed several canals to serve as means of communication between their various posts on the island. Their policy, however, though beneficial on the whole to the Singhalese as well as themselves, was essentially a selfish and ex clusive one. British intercourse with the island began in 1763, and in 1795, owing to the war with France and Holland, Great Britain was induced to attempt an effective occupation of it. In that year Trincomalee was captured, and in the following year Colombo; and by these victories all the Dutch forts were transferred to Great Britain. By the Peace of Amiens (1802) the whole coast territory was formally ceded. The King of Kandy, who remained in possession of the central mountainous region, perpetrated such atrocities on his own people that many of their chiefs in 1815 entreated Great Britain to depose him. A short cam paign was ended by the capture of the tyrant and his deportation as a prisoner to India, and since then the whole island has been under direct British rule. A serious rebellion in 1817 and minor ones in 1843 and 1848 have been the only breaks in the generally tranquil subsequent history of the colony. British rule has con tributed very largely to the material advance ment of the island by the construction of roads and railways, the extension of the Dutch canal system, the restoration of irrigation tanks, the bridging of rivers and the development of its great natural resources. Two important events in its modern history have been the rise and decline of coffee-planting (say from 1837 on ward), and the substitution of tea-planting (about 1878) in its place. The decline of coffee planting, as is well known, has been caused by a leaf-fungus. The planting of cinchona, cacao and rubber-trees has also helped to add to the resources of Ceylon in recent times. The rapid development of the rubber industry during the decade ending in 1916 has been mentioned above. In 1901 a considerable number of Boers, captured by the British in the South African War (q.v.), were sent to Ceylon.
The principal towns of the island are Co lombo, Trincomalee, Kandy, Galle, Jaffna and Kornegalle. The urban population is 11.8 per cent of the total number of inhabitants which, on 1 Jan. 1914, was given as 4,262,097. See also above : Races.
Bibliography.—Baker, H. D., 'British India, with notes on Ceylon,' etc. (Washington 1915); Barnard, A. S., 'Glimpses of Ceylon' (in Man chester Geographical Society Journal, London 1916); 'Census of Ceylon, 10 March 1914) (Colombo 1911); Clark, A., 'Ceylon' (London 1910) ; Crane, W., 'India Impressions, with Some Notes of Ceylon) (London 1908); Hum phreys, R., 'Travels East of Suez' (London 1915) ; 'Handbook for Travelers in India, Burma and Ceylon' (London 1913); 'Khosla's Directory of India, Burma and Ceylon' (La hore 1914); Pieris, P. E., 'Ceylon : the Portu guese Era' (Colombo 1913-14).
ClgZANNE, Paul, sa-zifi', French painter: b. Aix-en-Provence 1839; d. there 1906. He was the son of a banker and so, in spite of the failure of his pictures to find purchasers for the greater part of his lifetime, he did not, most happily, have to contend with poverty. Emile
Zola was a schoolmate of Cezanne's and it was he who induced the latter to come to Paris in 1861. From this year on his time is divided between Aix and Paris, the years from 1861 to 1882 being spent principally at the capital, where he came into contact with the best men of his generation, the latter years of his life being passed mostly in the south where he could work out his ideas more quietly. Zola had introduced Cezanne to his friend Manet and the young painter was soon acquainted with the whole hand, soon to be styled the Impres sionists, Renoir and Pissarro being especially his friends. He exhibited with them in 1874 and again in 1877, when he sent in 17 oil paint ings. Discouraged by the ridicule of critics and by his differences with the Impressionists, he retired in 1879 to Aix, where he spent the remainder of his life. In this seclusion he developed a style of amazing originality, which has exercised a profound influence upon the radical younger generation, who hail him as a prophet and a leader. After a fervent and profound study of the old masters and an ador ing acceptance of the art of Delacroix and Courbet, Cezanne's next step was, logically, to make himself master of the principles of their successors. This he did, especially during the twoyears that he lived with Pissarro at Anvers sur-Oise. 1873-74. But while the modern ideas of light were his study at this period he never lost sight of the masters of the Louvre, and he made endless experiments in applying latter-day knowledge to classic principles of design. °Imagine Poussin painted again according to our ideas of nature)) was one of his character With the early years of the '80's he is ready to begin a painting where personal inclination takes on more and more prominence as compared with inherited values. As a true i Frenchman, and a true classicist in the best sense of the word, the qualities he adds to his art in later life are derived from those, observ able in less emphasized form, in the art of the past. - Cezanne observed the design and color of the old masters and found that with the best of them these qualities are present as a living organism throughout the entire picture. He saw that it was precisely in this regard that the painting of his time was falling short of the excellence of the past. Without dreaming for a moment of returning to the vision of nature or the formula of painting of the old masters, he applied their demand for a firm basis of design to the painting of the earlier 19th cen tury. The picture at the Luxembourg, 'L'Es taque,) shows him on the road to his new style, the landscape at the Metropolitan Museum (1888) shows him firmly in possession of it and already obtaining his results with the as sured stroke of a master. His later years, however, showed no inclination to rest on his achievement or to repeat himself. On the con trary he goes untiringly ahead, making more and more clear to the younger generation (who began to follow him about 1885-90) that a profound idea of nature and an overwhelmingly sufficient statement of her aspects can be made by the setting down of a few essentials. His treatment of form and color rose to always grander heights and he is to-day almost uni versally considered one of the greatest of cre ative artists. While the larger part of his works is still in private collections he is rep resented, besides the museums noted above, in the Louvre Card Players' and 'Flowers)), at Berlin ((Still Life' and 'The Bouquet)), at the Neue Pinakothek, Munich and 'Fruits)), at the Museums of Mannheim, Christiania, in the Havemeyer collection, New York, etc. Consult Meyer and Graefe. 'Paul Cezanne) (Berlin 1910), and Burger, (Cezanne and Hodler' (Munich 1913). The story of Cezanne's struggles and career is depicted in Zola's 'L'tEuvre,> of which he is the hero.