Balt. oil and gas wells 28 205 233 service (not elsewhere 84 707 791es 224 1.120 1,341 and beverage in ustries . 115 1,327 1.442 Chemical and allied indus tries 187 3,132 3.315 Paper and pulp industries 154 4,652 4.808 Professional service 805 5,628 6,433 Metal industries (except iron and steel) 252 6.971 7,223 Clay, glass and stone in dustries 1,234 9,161 10,395 Cigar and tobacco factories 1,843 8.723 10,5M Food and kindred industries 972 10,245 11,217 Leather industries 406 11,592 11,998 Printing and bookbinding 622 11,482 12,104 Mines 2,241 14,877 17,118 Iron and steel industries 951 19,518 20,464 Lumber and furniture in dustries 4,367 17,418 21,785 Clothing industries 1,113 22.158 23.271 Transportation 3,041 21,777 24,818 Miscellaneous industries 2,064 28,093 30,157 Building and hand trades 5,008 27,657 32,665 Textile industries 14,642 65,888 80.530 Trade 22.441 88,965 111,406 Domestic and personal serv kgricultare, forestry and 33,043 80,510 113,555 ice animal husbandry 800,137 632,443 1,432,580 Totals 895,976 1,094,249 1,990,225 The occupations which, according to the census for 1910, show the highest percentage of children engaged as based upon the total number of workers of all ages in each, are given in order in the following table: Census figures are necessarily inadequate for the purpose of revealing the actual extent of child labor, inasmuch as they are gathered at a certain time of the year and therefore cannot show conditions existing in seasonal oc cupations at other periods. The data for 1910 were collected in the month of April, when, for example, very few fruit and vegetable canneries were in operation, and consequently only 49 children 10 to 13 years of age were reported as employed in such establishments over the entire country; later in the year when the fruit and vegetable seasons occur, great numbers of canneries are running and children of these ages are quite generally found at work in them, especially in those States which have granted specific authorization to this industry for their employment. Furthermore the number of children engaged in street trading is evidently understated in the census report, probably be cause many parents, in replying to the questions of enumerators concerning the occupations of their children, did not regard newspaper selling, bootblacking or peddling as within the meaning of that term and hence a large number of boys and girls so engaged were returned as having no occupation. This is indicated by the return of only three newsboys, including adults, for Chattanooga, a city of 45,000 inhabitants; and of only 243 newsboys 10 to 15 years of age for the great city of New York, while 240 of the same ages were reported for Toledo whose population is only one-thirtieth of New York city's. In neither of these two cities were children of these ages forbidden in 1910 to sell newspapers. For eight cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants no bootblacks whatever, either adults or children, were reported. In view of these facts and the lack of any report as to workers under 10 years of age (about whom no statistics have as yet been published by the bureau of census), the number of children under 16 years of age engaged in gainful occupations in 1910 must have been somewhat in excess of 2,000,000.
Effects.— As to the physical effects of child labor very little is known, aside from the find ings of a few isolated studies and the opinions of individual observers not based on prolonged investigation. Professor Teleky of the Univer sity of Vienna has shown that child laborers are especially susceptible to tuberculosis and that for the period of years covered by his study there was a steady increase in the gen eral sickness rate and industrial strain among children who left school to go to work. He urges that the employment of children under 16 years be prohibitedc and that the hours of labor for those between 16 and 18 years be rigidly curtailed to afford opportunity for con tinued education and recreation.
The lists of accidents to workers reported by State departments of factory inspection show that employees under 16 years of age suffer more mishaps than do those who are older, in proportion to the total number of such em ployees.. This is to be expected because of the immaturity and natural spirit of playfulness In children which make them more liable to acci dent than adults, especially when employed about dangerous machinery or in other places where the risk is great; and so, among the working classes, one not infrequently finds crippled children whose condition is due to misfortune met with in the course of work.
The effects of labor upon the schooling of children are manifest wherever the system of child employment is found. The States of Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina, North Carolina, Arkansas, Georgia, Texas, Tennessee, Florida and Louisiana, in the order given, had the largest percentages of children under 14 years of age at work in 1910, and were also among those having the highest percentages of illiteracy in their total population. These same States have been the last to enact compulsory school attendance laws — in several of them the application of the requirements adopted is sub ject (1918) to local or county option. In any community the presence of child labor and the absence of compulsory education produce illit eracy, for the child cannot be both at work and in school at the same time, and, as practically the only opportunity for elementary education comes in childhood, the child who neglects it or is denied it almost certainly becomes the illit erate adult.
If the child attends school irregularly of attends regularly but works at other hours, the effect is evident in his standing or scholarship. He fails to keep up with his class and is obliged to repeat the work of grades that is intended to require only one year for comple tion. In other words, he becomes retarded. This effect of retardation among working children is brought out by several studies made by the National Child Labor Committee. In the city of Toledo it was found that 55 per cent of the children who were attending four public schools and devoting their time outside of school hours to trading in the streets were enrolled in grades below those in which they naturally belonged according to their ages, while of the entire number of pupils only 36 per cent were retarded. In the State of Colorado 5,000 boys and girls under 16 years of age were found at work in the sugar-beet fields in 1915; they were kept out of school to assist in the cultivation and harvesting of the crop and as a result 54 per cent of them were backward, as against only 20 per cent of the non-beet-working children, and yet their teachers declared that they would have been just as far advanced as the others if they had attended as regularly. Child labor in any form must not be allowed to interfere with attendance at school, if the benefits of education are to be realized.
Remedies.—The remedies for child labor conditions may be divided into two groups, one embracing restrictive measures and the other ones. The rictive measures are found in legislation adopted by the nation, the State and the municipality for the control of child employment and in the machinery pro vided for the enforcement of such legislation. A State child labor law of general application, in order to be effective, must prohibit employ ment below a certain age limit in ordinary occupations, fix a higher age limit for danger ous work, regulate the hours of labor of children above the minimum age limit and re quire of them the completion of a certain amount of schooling, proof of age and physical fitness as qualifications for official work permits, make certain officers responsible for the enforcement of the law and fix the pen alties for its violation.