In September 1810 was formed the first national government, to rule the country dur ing the captivity of the king of Spain, whom the French held as a prisoner. From that time forward the design to achieve independence was never relinquished, though the events of the years immediately following were of a character to discourage patriotic aspirations. Chileans were defeated and compelled to return to a nominal subjection; the final success was won with the help of Argentine troops under General San Martin (see ARGENTINA), and the independence of the country was proclaimed in 1818. A constitution, adopted in 1824, and re modeled in 1828, was given in 1833 its final shaping, substantially the form which it still retains, though modifications demanded by the progress of the country have been made. Inde pendence was recognized by a formal arrange ment with Spain, and embodied in the treaty of 1844. In 1865 however, a war broke out between the mother country and Chile and Peru, hostilities continuing until 1869. After an interval of peace, the War on the Pacific began. For many years the rights of Bolivia and Chile, respectively, in certain mining lands bordering on the Pacific Ocean remained with out definition; but in 1874 an agreement was entered into between the two countries which apparently disposed of the question at issue. The exploitation of these lands by Chileans increasing, Bolivia reopened the dispute by im posing an export tax on the nitrate, obtained in Bolivian territory. A Chilean company re fused to pay the to alleging that it contra+ vened the treaty of 1874. The Bolivian govern ment's reply was an order for the sale' by auc tion of the property of the offending company, on 13 Feb. 1879. Thereupon the Chilean gov ernment sent a man-of-war to seize the port of Antofagasta. It soon became apparent that Chile would be obliged to deal with Peru against whom a secret offensive and defensive alliance had been formed by Bolivia and Peru in 1873. On 5 April 1879 Chile declared war against the latter republic. Tacna and the neighboring port of Arica were occupied by the presidents of Peru and Bolivia with their troops; the defense of Iquique was entrusted to a sufficient force, and at Lima a reserve of about 10000 men was held in readiness to meet the Chileans at any point that might be at tacked. The plans of the allies seemed to have been well laid, and some initial successes fell to them. Two Chilean Warships, the Esmer alda and the Covodonga, blockading Iquique, were attacked by the Peruvian frigate Inde pendent-la and the monitor Hutiscar. The Es4 nteralda was sunk by the' Midst-or, but the latter on 18 October fell in with the Cochrane and Blanco of the Chilean navy north of Point Mejillones. A fight of great severity ensued. Only 86 men were left alive on board the car, out of the complement of 216, when she was obliged to surrender. This vessel was re paired and added to the Chilean navy. Pisagua was captured from the Bolivians by Chilean warships. On 18 Nov. 1879, the allies were defeated in the battle of • San Francisco, but before the dose of the same month they scored a dearly bought success against the Chilean forces in the battle of Tarapaca. Chilean divi sions commanded by General Baquedano in vested the town of Moquegua, and on 23 March 1880 entered Torata. Two months later the city of Tacna (now the capital of the Chilean province of that name) was taken (26 May). The troops of the allies, including 5,120 Peru vians and 3,200 Bolivians, commanded by Ad miral Montero, and the Bolivian President, General Camper° sustained a crushing defeat. Arica, the port of this district, was attacked by the land and sea forces of Chile in June, and fell after making a desperate resistance. In order to emphasize the defeat and to cripple the more important members of the alliance, the Peruvian coast was laid waste, Mollendo Was destroyed, Callao and other ports block aded and an expedition under quedano's command made ready to proceed to Lima. See Plum As the fruits of her victory, Chile took from Bolivia the districts of Cobija and Ata cama : - from Peru the coast line north of the Bolivian possessions to, and including, condi tionally, the province of Tacna. Thus Chile's territory on the Pacific was extended north ward from the old boundary, at lat S. One of the allies was cut off from communi cation with the outside world by way of the Pacific Ocean; and a strategic frontier was established against the other ally. A truce, instead of a treaty, was concluded between Bolivia and Chile after the war, the sentiment of the Bolivians being utterly averse to any per manent arrangement which did not give them access to the sea. Renewal of negotiations for a definite treaty, which should include the con cession of a seaport, was repeatedly urged by Bolivia, but without effect. Peru, by the terms of the treaty of Amon (1883), surrendered to Chile absolutely the valuable nitrate district of Tarapeci, but with respect to the Tacna Arica region a peculiar convention was made. It was agreed that Tacna-Arica should be gov erned by Chile for a period of 10 years, and that, at the end of the decade, the vote of the inhabitants should decide whether it would be better for the province to revert to Peru or to be administered by Chile in the future— the country thus rejected by popular vote re ceiving from the other country $10,00%000 silver by way of compensation. Over 32 years have passed, and the Peruvian government has re peatedly urged fulfilment of the treaty, but the plebiscite has not yet been held. The regions that then changed hands now form the north ernmost zone of Chile. The Bolivian frontier was settled by the treaty of October 1904.
Some of the amendments to the constitution referred to above were adopted before the out break of the war with Peru and Bolivia. They embodied the liberal ideas which, in 1874, tri umphed over the conservation of the proprie tors of large estates, a class practically dominat ing the government's policy up to that time. The most forceful of the liberal leaders who effected this important political change was Bal maceda, a member of Congress in 1868, Minister to the Argentine Republic at the time of the war with Bolivia and Peru, and, i 1885, elected to the presidency of the republi Balmaceda's advocacy of measures relating to internal im provements, a system of popular education and the separation of Church and State, created bitter antagonism. United in opposition to him were all those who disapproved of his vigorous liberalism on principle, and all who were jeal ous of his power as an individual. In I:: the country was plunged into civil war. The operations of the forces of the revolutionists were directed by a junta representing Congress. The President assumed the powers of a dictator for the defense of his position; but he was de feated, and died by his own hand on 19 Dec. 1891. The opinion prevailed in Chile, when this conflict was at its height, that the United States government, through Minister Patrick Egan, was showing favor to the cause of Bal maceda, and discriminating against the Con gressional party. The fierce resentment felt by the latter expressed itself in an attack upon sailors of the United States cruiser Baltimore, who became involved, while on shore, in a brawl with Chilean sailors. There was a riot of the populace in the streets, and several of the Baltimore's men were seriously or mortally wounded. When a report of this indignity reached Washington, suitable representations were made by the authorities there, but un fortunately it was necessary to address such representations to a merely provisional govern ment at Santiago. The latter not only refused
the demand for satisfaction, but insisted that the men who had been assaulted should be handed over to Chile for trial as criminals. The management of Chilean affairs was en trusted to President Montt, and the demand of the United States was emphasized by the send ing of two additional warships to Chile. The new President tendered apologies for the dis courtesy of the provisional government, as well as for the attack upon men wearing the uni form of the United States; and compensation was made to the wounded sailors, or to the/ families of those who had died.
Chile and Argentina had agreed that their• common boundary should be a line running along the crest of the Andes, which was errone ously supposed to be the watershed throughout. Discovery of this error occasioned disputes at first, and finally a resort to arbitration. By mediation of the Anibassador of the United States, an agreement was reached as to the northern districts. The more intricate southern portion was surveyed by a boundary commis sion under Sir T. W. Holdich; and King Ed ward of England, as arbitrator, issued the award in 1902. On 28 May 1902, the plenipo tentiaries of Chile and the Argentine Republic concluded two important agreements, the first of which provides for the arbitration of all questions not affecting constitutional precepts, or that cannot be settled by di tct negotiations. It is entitled a "General Treaty of Arbitration,* and the desire is expressed in its introductory clause "to settle by friendly methods whatever questions may arise between the two countries.' second agreement is entitled a °Convention on Naval Armaments," which has "the object of removing all causes of anxiety and sus picion.* The two governments 'renoutite the acquisition of the war vessels they have in con struction and the making for the present of any new acquisitions;" agreeing, moreover, to re duce their respective fleets until they arrive at prudent equilibrium.' On 25 May 1905 Senor Alejandro Lim signed the A. B. C. peace treaty at Buenos Aires. Diplomatic relations with Peru were severed in 1909 but no serious results ensued. On 10 July 1911 King George of England ren dered his award in the long-standing Alsop claim, assigning V935,000 to the Alsop firm. The original amount of the claim was $3,000,000 with interest. Chile paid the amount 13 November through the government of the United States. In 1913 the railway from Arica on the coast of Chile to the Bolivian plateau was completed. The control of this railway is to be retained by Chile for 15 years, that is, until 1928. In 1915 Chile felt very keenly the effects of the Great War; the suspension of her credit in Europe, the loss of her export market and the obliga tion to secure her imports from new sources. Readjustment soon took place, however, and in some cases on a healthier basis. Bad credit practices have been destroyed; desirable re trenchment in public expenditures was in some cases enforced. Trade losses in one direction were made up in many instances by gains in other directions, and, in some cases, more nat ural routes and relations were established. Chile protested to Great Britain in 1916, against the destruction of the German cruiser Dresden by a British fleet in the territorial waters of the Juan Fernandez Islands, and received an apology from the latter stating that the Dresden had not accepted internment and that it was destroyed to protect shipping. This apology was accepted by Chile. Germany protested to Chile, denying the allegations of the British note and demanding satisfaction. This protest was returned by Chile. (See LATIN AMERICA AND THE WAR). President Juan Luis San fuentes, representing the Liberal Democrats or took office 23 Dec. 1915. The constitution of 25 May 1833 is still in force, though repeatedly amended. That fundamental law established for Chile a form of government, with legisla tive, executive and judicial branches, which at first sight appears to be genuinely republican; but the oligarchical tendencies are much stronger than in any other South American country. The legislative power is vested in the national Congress, composed of the chamber of senators, with members elected for a term of six years by direct vote and by provinces, in the proportion of one senator to each three depu ties; and the chamber of deputies, with mem bers elected for a term of three years. To represent Congress in the period of its recess, there is a permanent committee of 14 members, one-half chosen by each chamber. The Presi dent of the republic holds office for five years, and cannot be re-elected for the next consecu tive period. A Council of State, composed of 11 members, some of whom are appointed by the President, and others by the chambers, has the Ri,wer to intervene in certain appointments, and its consent is necessary for the promulga tion of laws, the granting of pardons and some other matters. This council is not to be con fused with the Cabinet, in which there are but six ministers or secretaries: the Minister of the Interior; of Foreign Affairs of Justice and Public Instruction ; of War and the Navy; of the Treasury; of Industries and Public Works. The judicial branch of the government comprises: the Supreme Court of Justice located at Santi ago, and composed of seven members, with authority over all other tribunals of the re public; the Court of Appeals, for the districts of Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso, Santiago, Talca and Concepcion; one or more justices of the peace in each department of the republic; and sub-delegation of minor district judges. Juries exist only for suits involving the question of abuse of the freedom of the press. Senators must not be less than 36 years of age, and must have a fixed income of $2,000 a year. Deputies also must be not less than 36 years of age; and, they must be possessed of a fixed income of $500 per annum and, also like senators, serve without salary. Every married male Chilean of 21, or unmarried man of 25, not civilly dis qualified by judicial act, is an elector. It is provided, however, that he must be able to read and write and must have a certain amount of property. The literacy test disfranchises con siderably more than one-half of the possible electorate. This makes the members of the Congress the choice of a few electors. The President, who must be a native Chilean of not less than 30 years of age, is chief of the ex ecutive branch. He is elected by representa tives who are themselves, by direct vote of the whole electorate, sent to a special congress for the purpose. The President is forbidden to leave the country either during his term of office or in the following year without sanction of Congress. His salary is $15,000 per annum. He is assisted in his duties by a Council of State of 11 members, five of whom he appoints, while six are appointed by the Senate. With the sanction of the Council of State, the President may convene extraordinary sessions. In the event of the President's death or abdication, the Minister of the Interior becomes Vice President and chief of the executive branch. The President is, tx officio, chief of the army. The executive is represented in each depart ment by a public prosecutor, who initiates civil and criminal prosecutions and is an officer de pendent on the ministries of justice and of the interior. Limitations of the presidential in fluence and its subordination to the legislative power appear very clearly in the circumstance that the Cabinet must resign if it encounters an adverse vote in Congress.