Meanwhile the disturbing influence of Amer ican prosperity and expansion were felt in both Europe and Asia. Within a year after Pitts burgh achieved the supremacy of the world in the making of cheap steel, Russia, Germany and Great Britain °precipitated themselves upon the shore of the Yellow Sea, grasping at the posi tions which had been conquered by Japan and for the same reason,*— to obtain possession of the rich coal and iron deposits in Shansi, said to be °worth ten Pennsylvanian.* Germany seized Kiao Chan, Russia Port Arthur, and Great Britain Wei-hai-wei, in readiness for the supposed impending 'Break-up of China* and its expected partition. The torpedo that sunk the Maine in Havana harbor interrupted the European program, postponed the partition of China and united the British, Americans and Japanese in the determination to keep China intact and the door of commerce open. In 1900 the United States, now a world power, was in Asia with force and had a policy — the policy of freedom and uplift—which for a century or more, the Americans in Asia, as traders, teachers, healers and apostles of democracy and fair play had been steadily de veloping. Meanwhile in China the old terri torial integrity could not be so ruthlessly vio lated nor the ancient social systems invaded without protest. The introduction of railways had thrown thousands of men out of old meth ods of employment. The tremendous commer cial intrusions, which disarranged old customs and made the problem of livelihood to millions so very serious, brought on a fierce reaction both of the scholars and the people and es pecially of the Buddhist priests, creating an atmosphere and environment most favorable for the outbreak of another of those sectarian re volts against the official orthodoxy of China, to put down which the Chinese have shed more blood perhaps than all the religious wars and inquisitions of Europe. This time the heresy was joined with and the cry raised in the name of patriotism. The heretics became the people called "Boxers') or the Fists of United Har mony., The triple pressure of hunger, super stition and patriotic revolt at the territorial in cursions of the foreigner at last burst out into a storm, which in blind wrath against everything alien, smote first the railways and foreign work men and then the teachers of the foreign re ligion and their converts. The mob reached Peking and surrounded the legations, which were hastily isolated, fortified and for months successfully defended. The foreign powers hastily made preparation to defend and then succor their nationals, but the United States seemed to be the only one that beside its prompt despatch of a military force had a definite policy, which was in recognition of the sov ereignty of China to relieve its own citizens and then withdraw its military from Chinese soil. It is absurd to suppose any real harmony or co-operation between the orthodox Chinese government and the heretical Boxers. What ever be one's opinions on the subject or the form of the encouragement alleged to have been given directly by the Empress Dowager, it is a fact that no hostile shot was fired by a Chinese regular soldier or sailor, until the seven allied nations, in which the Americans were not in cluded, had made war on China by firing on the Taku forts, 17 June 1900. Against this unwarranted proceedings and overt act of war the American Admiral Lewis Kempff protested and in the crime of attacking peaceful Chinese he refused to participate, his conduct becoming the basis of the triumphal diplomatic poli of the United States government. Briefly sta the situation was this: A riot of fanatic sectarians, moved by economic and patriotic motives, rose in rebellion against the govern ment already impoverished and weakened by foreign aggression. When unable to put down the uprising in Shansi, the Pet-ho valley and the vice-royalty from which Li Hung Chang had been removed — though the vihole Boxer move ment was wisely handled and thoroughly sup pressed by able viceroys in the central and southernparts of China the seven allied na tions made war on China in the bombardment of the Chinese forts. When also the Chinese, of course, attacked their enemies in Siberia, the Russians perpetrated the massacre at Blag ovestchenk and then marched their soldiers to Peking. The combined relieving force fought the opposing Chinese. The Japanese, having the largest and best furnished of the contingents, led the van. The Russians as very slow march ers came next, so that the Americans and Brit ish contingents had to march during the hottest hours of the day. It is certain that the celerity, character and discipline of the Japanese sol diery on this expedition excited the surprise and admiration of military critics of every na tion represented, while on the other hand the familiarity of the men of Nippon with those of Muscovy bred contempt of Russian slowness, heaviness and low grade of intelligence in the mujik or common soldier of the tsar.
After the capture of Tien-Tsin 14 July, the Japanese or Americans alone could then have pressed on and relieved Peking within a fort night, but jealousies and unnecessary delays kept the relieving column idle until 4 August. The unspeakable robberies, violation of women, brutalities and generally barbarous conduct of the most of the European troops, by the way and in the capital, demonstrated the hypocrisy of the claim to be called Christian and in con trast to the conduct of the Japanese proved that the terms °Oriental° and uOccidental,° as ap plied to morals, are purely traditional and des tined soon to pass away. Ile Imperial city was captured on 15 August, the Chinese court es caping to the westward remained wholly away from Peking until January 1902. On 28 Au gust bodies of soldiers, representative of the eight allied nations, marched through the For bidden City as a. token of China's humiliation. Li Hung Chang was recalled to office and with Prince Chang commissioned to treat with the Powers, only one of whom, the United States, seemed to have a definite policy. During the
°peace° negotiations, the German army kept *up a series of attacks and massacres of Chinese called °punitive expeditions° which in general character were a disgrace to civilization. An indemnity equal to $330, 000,000 was imposed on the Chinese gov ernment in expiation of the Boxer outrages, and for her self-defense in the war fol lowing the attack on the Taku forts. Various Safeguards for the legations were arranged and agreed to, the importation of arms and ammunition prohibited, and the Tsung-li •amen was transformed into the Ministry of Foreign Affairs which was to take precedence of the other ministries. Except legation guards, the foreign troops were to be withdrawn in September 1901. The Imperial edict of Febru ary 1901 accepted the terms imposed. On 9 April 1902, the Manchurian convention between China and Russia received the imperial seal. The Russians were to evacuate' Manchuria within eighteen months, but to retain control over the railroads.
It was after this Boxer uprising that what we have called the Russian and the American foreign policies and systems of diplomacy had by contrast their most signal illustration. As soon as order was restored and the preliminary diplomatic arrangements made, the United States recalled all its military force, except a small legation guard, asked no favors in return for what had been done, and not only em phasized her recognition of China as a sover eign Power, but set a commendable example to the other governments by dealing justly with the Chinese in the matter and method of pay ment of the indemnity, thus illustrating again the fixed American policy of helping rather than taking advantage of Asiatic nations. Rus sia, on the contrary, demanding the right to occupy Manchuria with her troops and to make Port Arthur the terminal of her Siberian rail way, began thenceforth the military possession of Manchuria, the building of the city of Dalny (q.v.), and the making of Port Arthur (q.v.) both a city and an impregnable fortress, and ini tiated various other enterprises on a vast scale, costing hundreds of millions of roubles, all of which suggested a prospective ownership in fee simple, rather than temporary occupation, not withstanding that she solemnly covenanted to evacuate on 8 Oct. 1903. The United States believing in the good faith of the Mus covite government and in accordance with her policy of recognizing China's sovereignty, ap pointed consuls for the three cities in Manchuria which by treaty agreement were to be thrown open to the trade of the United States. When the appointed time drew near, there was no indication of any purpose on the part of Russia to keep her agreement. As early as 28 July 1903 the Japanese government expressed to Russia its alarm at the Manchurian situation. When Russia formulated new demands at Pe king and seemed to consolidate rather than re lax her hold on Manchuria, showing also in creased activity along the Korean frontier, doubts were raised in Tokio as to the limits of Russia's ambition. Through his minister in Tokio, Baron Komura and his envoy, Mr. Kuri no in Saint Petersburg, the mikado notified the tsar through Count Lamsdorff that wishing to remove every cause of future misunderstanding he desired to enter °upon examination of the condition of affairs in the Extreme East, where their interests meet, with a view to a definition of their respective special interests in those regions.° Negotiations were opened and after long delay on the part of Russia the tsar an nounced that while willing to respect the in dependence and territorial integrity of Korea, Russia declined to extend the same engagement to China and requested Japan to acknowledge Manchuria and its littoral as entirely outside her sphere of interest. The tsar furthermore requested the limitation of Japanese control in Korea, even proposing a mutual zone covering all Korean territory north of the 39th parallel. Other negotiations, followed by exasperating delays in Saint Petersburg, took place, Russia meanwhile heavily reinforcing both her army in Manchuria and her fleet in eastern seas, pur chasing and transporting also large stores of ammunition and coal to Port Arthur. On 5 February, Japan telegraphed the termina tion of her negotiations, severing diplomatic relations with Russia and withdrawing her lega tion. Then followed hostilities, begun simul taneously, both parties claiming that the other had fired the first hostile shot. In the war that followed, the Japanese surprised Europe with the rapidity and brilliancy of their victories on land and sea, China remaining neutral except to take precautions against the violation of her frontiers. At the request of the German em peror, the American secretary of state urged upon three of the nations most interested, the limitation of the area of hostilities, to which they promptly responded. From the side of the Japanese it must be remembered that they were smarting under the sense of long-continued Russian aggression in Saghalien and Kuriles, begun very early in the 19th century. In 1861 a Russian man-of-war proceeded to the island of Tsushima, on which the Russian flag was hoisted and a settlement was made (though not until Japanese blood had been shed in resist ance), which would have constituted a title of ownership had not Great Britain interfered. The Russians were finally compelled through British intervention to abandon their claim and leave. By the usual plan of ejoint occupation," which in the Ussun province of the Chinese empire had ended in China's loss of a territory as large as France and its incorporation into the Russian empire, the Russians gained complete possession of Saghalien. After the restoration of the empire in 1868 it was foreseen by the Japanese statesmen that Russia would be their chief danger, for already signs of her movement in Korea were menacing. This fact was the strongest determining element in the creation in 1871, in place of the old clan contingents, of a powerful army and navy for national defense.