2. The German Empire.— Each of the states of the German Empire has its own municipal system although they do not differ widely one from another. That of Prussia, which is larger than all the other states put together, has its basis in the Prussian City Government Act of 1853, and amending statutes of which there have been a great many. In Prussia the dominant local authority is the city council (Stadtversammlung), the members of which are elected for six-year terms by the voters of electoral districts in each city. The suffrage is arranged on what is known as the °three-class system," by which all the voters are grouped into three classes according to the amount of their annual tax payments. Each class of voters in each district elects one councillor, although the number of voters in each class differs widely.
The city council, in turn, chooses the mem bers of the city's administrative board (Stadt rat or Magistrat), each for a 12-year term, and these officials have charge of the various city departments. As a body the administrative hoard prepares all business for consideration by the council at its meetings and is entrusted with the duty of carrying the council's resolutions into effect. The subordinate officials are ap pointed by this board, hut under strict regula tions laid down by the general laws.
The bfirgermeister, who is titular head of the city government, is chosen by the council subject to royal approval. Invariably an official of long administrative experience is selected for the post. The bUrgermeister has the gen eral oversight of administration, but he has no veto or appointing power, no patronage and no such administrative discretion as is vested in the American mayor.
In the exercise of their respective powers the German city authorities are subject to rigid supervision at the hands of the higher au thorities, particularly those of the province in which the municipality is situated.
3. France.— Except as regards Paris the system of local government is uniform through out the French republic. All municipalities, large and small, with the single exception of the capital, are ranked as communes and governed under the terms of the Municipal Code of 1884. In each commune there is a local council, the members of which are elected by manhood suf frage for four-year terms. This council chooses from among its own members a mayor and one or more assistant-mayors or adjoints, also for four-year terms. These officials, however, retain their membership in the council and con tinue to sit there, the mayor as presiding officer.
The general direction of municipal policy rests with the council which maintains various standing committees. But the supervision exer cised by the national government through the prefects is very strict. The municipal budget, for example, must have this official's approval. The mayor and his assistants have numerous important powers both as agents of the central government and as chief administrative officers of the municipality. The mayor has important powers of appointment; he is in control of the local police and he frames the annual budget, presenting it to the council for adoption. As agent of the central government he is respon sible for the local enforcement of the national laws and decrees, for the administration of the system of universal military service as regards his commune, for the enrolment of voters, the reportation of births, marriages and deaths, and for the working of the educational and poor-relief systems. Many of these functions
are devolved upon the adjoints or upon the secretary of the commune.
Paris, which virtually forms the department of the Seine, is governed by two prefects, the prefect of the Seine and the prefect of police, both appointed by the President of the re public, and by a municipal council of 80 mem bers elected by popular vote, one from each of the 80 electoral districts into which the city is divided. The term is four years. The council's powers, apart from matters of finance, are not extensive. The city, however, is divided into 20 wards or arrondissements, each with a mayor who is appointed by the national government and who acts as a deputy-prefect. The whole system is one of rigid centralization.
4. Italy.— The Italian municipal system is based upon the Municipal Law of 1889 and its amendments. Each city has a municipal coun cil of from 15 to 80 members, elected for five year terms, one-fifth retiring annually. The right to vote is given only to those who pass an educational test and who pay a small amount in taxes. The administrative work is de puted by the council to a small standing coma mittee or Junta which it selects from within its own membership. It also selects from among its own members a Syndic, or mayor, who is the chief administrative official of the city and head of the Junta. As in France the provincial authorities exercise close supervision over municipal affairs.
5. Austria.— The Austrian system of city government resembles that of Prussia, but with some important differences. The city council is elected by the citizens under a system by which the voters are grouped according to their annual tax payments into four classes. The administrative magistrates are selected by the council from among its own members and so is the biirgermeister. The latter holds office for six years only but is sometimes re-elected. His selection is not valid until confirmed by the emperor, but this con firmation is rarely refused.
6. Other European Countries.—Of the other countries of continental Europe, Spain and Belgium have systems of local government which in their general outlines resemble that of France. In Spain each city ranks as a com mune; its organs of government are a city council (ayuntamiento), the members of which are selected for a four-year term by the voters, and all male Spaniards above the age of 24 have the right to vote at local elections. The council elects one of its own members to serve as mayor (alcalde) ; but in the largest cities the right to appoint the mayor belongs to the national gov ernment. In Belgium the French system of citygovernment has been almost literally fol lowed, except that the mayor or burgomaster is chosen for a 10-year term. Plural voting and proportional representation have also been adopted. French influence is also apparent in the municipal system of Holland. There is an elective council, a board of adjoints (wethoud ers) elected by the council from among its own members, and a mayor or burgomaster ap pointed by the Crown for a six-year term.
Bibliography.— Howe, F. C. Cities at Work' (1914) ; Munro, W. B. ernment of European Cities' (1909) ; Ogg, F. A., The Governments of Europe' (1913).