Under the mild sky of Asia, Africa, Greece and Italy cities were built first, and in the greatest number. The Phoenicians and Egyp tians particularly distinguished themselves by the erection of cities, which soon attained a high degree of wealth, and consequently of civilization. The Egyptians considered their city of Thebes older than any of the Greek cities; and Pliny says that Cecropia, said to have been erected in Attica by Cecrops, 1582 a.c., and afterward called "Athens," was the oldest city of Greece. Hceren justly remarks that the rise of cities was the most important source of the republicanism of antiquity. This is particularly true of Greece. In fact cities are, by their very nature, of a democratic tendency. Several confederations instance, cities ex isted in the ancient world; for the Phoenician, consisting of the cities of Tyre, Sidon, etc., and the Achwan league, formed by the most important cities of Greece, in order to strengthen themselves against the power of Macedon. Under Augustus and his successors the Romans began to establish colonial cities in Germany, having done the same long before in Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc. In Switzerland they first erected cities about 70 A.D., which, how ever, were mostly laid waste by the Alemanni, and subsequently rebuilt under the government of the Franks (496 A.D.). The Germans, accus tomed to a wild, rambling life, did not show any disposition to live in cities until Charlemagne labored to collect them together in settled abodes from his desire to civilize them. in I dis tinguished himself particularly n this way, and on this account has been called by some °Henry the City-builder" (der Stadtbauer). He gave the cities great privileges, in order to induce his subjects to live in them, and thus laid the foundation of that power which at a future period contributed most to break down the feudal system. In many cities Imperial castles were erected to protect the inhabitants, and the insupportable oppressions and even cruelties. exercised by the feudal lords upon their peasants, or by the wandering knights and robbers, drove many people into the cities. The attacks of the neighboring lords gave firm ness to their union, and compelled them to cultivate their resources. Commerce and the various arts and trades were soon cultivated within their walls, and their wealth and re spectability increased. They soon became sen sible of the want of a better system of laws and political administration than prevailed around them, and the principle of equal rights and laws was quickly developed.
One of the most important remnants, if not the most important, of the great fabric of an cient civilization, was the cities of Italy. In spite of their bloody contests with each other, and the vices of an oligarchical government, Europe is mainly indebted to them for the cul tivation of the commercial spirit, together with the toleration and love of liberty, which, under the most unfavorable circumstances, it tends to foster, and for that ardor in the cultivation of arts, science and literature, which has always distinguished the best periods of Italian his tory, and from which the general revival of learning in Europe, called the Renaissance, took its rise. Under the reign of Conrad III (1138-52) the cities of Lombardy, and partic ularly Milan, which stood at their head, had ac quired a high degree of wealth and power, and had formed themselves into a confederation. The struggles between the emperors and these cities form one of the most important portions of the history of the German empire and of Italy. Frederick I in vain demolished the pow erful city of Milan. It was soon rebuilt, and the
cities of Lombardy, in alliance with the Pope, obliged the emperor to conclude with them a very disadvantageous peace at Constance. Two other confederations of cities, highly import ant, were formed during the interregnum of the German empire, between 1256 and 1272. One of them was the powerful Hansa, or Han seatic League (q.v.), the other the confeder acy of the High German and Rhenish cities, from the foot of the Alps to the mouth of the Main, established by Walpode of Mentz in 1255. A similar confederacy, and a very im portant one, was that of the Suabian cities, instituted in 1488 to repel the outrages of the feudal lords and knights. The cities of the Netherlands, from their central position be tween France and Germany, exercised a power ful influence on the growth of civilization and political liberty in Europe. Their favorable sit uation and the enterprise of their inhabitants early gave them great wealth and power. The democratic spirit, ultimately carried to the greatest height in Holland, was earliest mani fested in the towns of Belgium, which began in the 12th century to show a turbulent dis position, and by frequently leaguing themselves with the enemies of their feudal superiors ex tended their political privileges, and acquired at times a premature independence, which, though ultimately extinguished in the spirit of na tionality, contributed not a little to the breaking up of the feudal system (q.v.). In Spain munic ipalities were established at an early date. Leon received a charter in 1020, Sepulveda, Lograno, Sahagun and Salamanca followed soon after. The constitution of the Spanish towns approached more nearly to the ancient idea of a city than was common in other large states of Europe, in this resembling the Italian cities. Their constitution was extremely democratic, and they ruled over a large extent of surround ing territory, which they were bound to defend. Deputies from the towns were admitted to the Cortes in the 12th century (1167 and 1183). The love of liberty rose high in these ancient Spanish cities, but from the isolation of the Iberian Peninsula they exercised little influence in Europe, and they soon lost their power and importance, most of them by the end of the 15th century having ceased to send their representa tives to the Cortes. By degrees the cities ac quired in the different countries of Europe the right of representation in the legislative bodies; and wealth, industry, knowledge and equal laws spread from them through Europe. But the cities of Lombardy. though still flourishing and wealthy, had fallen, for the most part, under the rule of single families; their republican gov ernments vanished, and their confederation was di.isolved. The association of German cities experienced a similar fate. By the Peace of Westphalia the princes of the German empire were declared sovereign powers, and the more their authority increased the more did the rela tive weight of the cities diminish. These had formerly suffered from the oppressions of the feudal lords. They were now the victims of the policy of the neighboring princes, whom envy often led to adopt the most unwarrantable meas ures against the cities, many of which had lost their independence before Napoleon dis so:ved the German empire. He took away the privileges of those which remained free; and the Congress of Vienna restored freedom to Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen and Frankfort, only because the different powers could not agree to whom they should be assigned. At the same time Cracow was declared an independent city, with a republican form of government.