Cooking in water was probably the last to be discovered of the primitive methods, for it could not have been done until water-tight utensils were made; there were, first, baskets, made by plaiting grasses, twigs and rushes; then bowls or troughs were made by burning out hollow places in a log. Stones were heated in the fire and plunged into the water in these baskets or troughs, and this cooked the food. Indians cook their acorn mush in this way, and the Alaskans use their canoes for boilers, heating the water with hot stones, when they boil the salmon for its oil. When day was found, they , learned to shape it into bowls, then into pots with three legs, and thus had a fire-proof as well as water-tight utensil; and after this stewing came into general use. Jacob's savory venison was probably stewed. In spite of luxury, the old men in Greece pre ferred the black broth made of cuttlefish.
"Rome was raised on gruel,' or pulse, made of barley and vegetables, and it is probable that stewing in some of its forms has been the method in most general use, among the masses of the people, who from limitation of means and of food supplies have learned its value. Stewing is not advisable, as commonly done in America, where a large amount of fire must be kept in one of our immense ranges especially for this purpose, but when it can be done ova just the small amount of fire or gas needed, it is undoubtedly the most economical and nutri tious way of cooking the cheaper kinds of meat, fish and poultry, and it is capable of many variations. But the average American man of moderate means does not take kindly to cheap meat. In this °land of the free and he aims to have as nice a cut of steak as his employer, and his helpless helpmate probably knows no ,other way to cook meat save in the omnipresent frying-pan, and has no idea of the principles of the Norwegian' cooker. Americans, with the best vegetables in 'the world, have much to learn about the cooking of them. Too much water and too little cooking. are the American faults; just enough butter or, oil to prevent burning, and then a slow stew, ing in their own juices; saving them generally, instead of throwing them out in the water,— is the better way for many vegetables. Our. beverages, our soups, our steamed puddings, our candy and many other foods, are palatabk or otherwise, according to our knowledge of' cooking in water. A question asked by a lady in the early days of cooking-schools shows the lamentable ignorance of many women on thiS important subject: "How shall I know when the water boils?' It is interesting to note that every primitive method has its counterpart now, not only, among the barbarous people, but we find, that persons of the highest and ment adopt some of them instinctively, when, camping necessities suggest their use, or the satiated appetite craves simplicity. No foreign;
chef has produced anything finer than the trout cooked on a swinging birch bough before the camp door, a potato baked in hot ashes, scalded corn-meal baked on a board on the hearth sweet corn roasted on hot stones, a planked', shad, a Louisiana gumbo, a Brunswick stew,: a Rhode Island clam-bake, 'or beans and porl baked in a bean-hole in the Maine woods.
Revolution.— Many thoughtful min prophesy that the next step in the evolution of cookery will be one of °revolution among the, eaters themselves?' Already many have re-• volted against meat and other animal foods,' vegetarianism having made great advance in favor. Much of the laborious part of cooking'. has been taken from the home to the public kitchens and bakeries, or to the manufactory of prepared foods ready for the table. The• over taxed digestive organs are demanding relief,: by a change to more simple living. A few persons are beginning to understand that the man of moderate means' spends too large portion of his earnings for his food; that there) is great waste of labor, fuel, heat, comfort, temper, health and morality in the cooking of food; that intemperance in eating, produces as direful results as intemperance in drinIcing;, that Ca man is what he eats,B and that high. thinking comes easiest after plain living..
Special directions for cooking fruits and nuts, for making breads, cake, pastries, etc., as well as for preparing the foods enumerated above, can be found in the numerous books and jour nals devoted to cookery. Every precaution should be taken to ensure cleanliness in the cooking of food, not only because one wishes to avoid filth, but also because unclean methods make possible the transmission of disease. In the United States and in other countries there is a growing effort to secure cleanliness in markets, food factories, balceries, hotels, restau rants and other places where food is handled, prepared, sold and eaten. With this end in view legislation has been enacted in many places, providing for inspection and for punish ment if the law is violated. See Ntrrarriox OF MAN.
Bibliography.—Parloa, 'New Cook-Book and Guide to Marketing and C-ooking) (Bos ton 1908); Colombie, (Traite pratique de cuisine bourgeoise> (Paris 1897) ; Filippine, 'International Cook Book' (New York 1906) ; Robinson and Hammel, 'Lessons in Cooking through Preparation of Meals> (Chicago 1912) ; and Hazlitt, (Old Coolcing_ Books' (London