Before prose was sufficiently developed, the early historians, especially Q. Fabius Pictor (c. 210 B.c.) and L. Cinnius Alimentus (c. 209 B.c.), used the Greek tongue. The real founder of Latin prose is M. Porcius Cato (234-149 B.c.), a voluminous writer on many subjects. His works comprise (Origines' in seven books, on fhe rise and growth of Rome and the origin of Italian cities, (De Re Rustica,) still extant, and many speeches. Among other historians may be mentioned S. Cornelius Sisenna (119-67 B.c.), Claudius Quadrigarius, Velerius Antias and Licinius Macer, whose work was much used by Livy. In oratory, besides Cato, we find S. Sulpicius Galba, C. Gracchus, M. Antonius, L. Crassus, Q. Fabius Maximus, M. Cornelius Cethegus and Q. Hortensius (114-50 B.c.), who was the bridge between these orators and Cicero. Also worthy of mention are S. iElitis Pletus, who wrote the first law book, (Triper tita,' and L. yElius Stilo, the first philologian. The (Rhetorica ad Herennium,' in four books, an important work on rhetoric, also belongs to this period. Its author is unknown, but it does not belong to Cicero or Cornificius, to each of whom it has been ascribed.
III. Golden or Classical Period.— This period contains the best of Roman literature and may for convenience be divided into the Ciceronian and Augustan ages, the fortner be ing characterized by the highest development of prose, the latter of poetry.
(a) The eiceronian Period.— The first great writer of this age is M. Terentius Varro (116 28 "Lc.), of ancient family and high rank, who was the most learned man and most extensive writer of ancient Rome. In his works, 74 in number, in more than 600 volumes, he treated almost every conceivable subject, literature, oratory, history, philosophy, grammar, juris prudence, geography, agriculture, etc. Of especial importance are his (Saturw Menippem,' in which he used both prose and verse form to satirize the condition of his times. By far the greatest name in Roman literature is M. Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.c.), the son of a Roman knight, born near Arpinum in Latium. He was remarkably endowed both physically and mentally. He was tall and commanding in appearance, possessed of a fine memory, vivid imagination, quick and ready wit, intense feel ing and a kindly, generous disposition. To these natural gifts he brought the most untiring energy in his eager acquirement of knowledge of every kind and enjoyed the instruction of the very best masters. He was an intense and honest patriot, but lacked political sagacity and the courage of his convictions. His apprecia tion of the beautiful, supplemented by his study of the Greek writers, led him to reproduce their thoughts in Latin, and thus he became the founder of the finest prose that ever was known to the Romans. His highest achievement was in oratory, and his speeches, both political and legal, are among the finest remains of Roman literature. His correspondence was prolific and is of immense value from an historical as well as from a linguistic point of view. In his later years, when the party of Cwsar was in the ascendency, he retired to private life and com posed his philosophical works, largely as a solace for his troubles, but also to acquaint his people with the best systems of the Greeks. Of over 100 speeches we have 57 complete, and fragments of about 70 others, while the rest are known to us only by tradition. The great est speeches are the four against Catiline, one for Milo, one against Verres and the second against Antony, one of the most powerful in vectives in any language. His rhetorical works are an outgrowth of his preparation for oratory. In this work his aim was to modify and fit existing systems to Roman needs. The rhetor ical works are as follows: 'De Inventione,' in two books, very crude and immature; 'De Oratore,' in three books, in dialogue form, with the two great orators, L. Crassus and M. Antonius, as the chief speakers, a splendid work, full of vivacity and eloquence and composed in magnificent style; (Brutus, sive de Claris Ora toribus,) also in dialogue form, a history of Roman oratory. In the 'Orator ad M. Bru tum,' Cicero paints his ideal orator. In the Tartitiones Oratorix,) didactic in nature, Cicero quizzes his son on rhetorical matters. (Topica ad C. Trebatium' is an explanation from memory of Aristotle's (Topica.) Optimo Genere Oratorum) is a discourse .on the Asiatic and Attic styles of oratory, being an introduction to his translation of the two famous speeches of Xschines and Demosthenes (On the Crown,' which translation is, however, unfortunately lost. Philosophy was not kindly received at Rome, and while Ennius and others had treated it slightly, it remained for Cicero to transplant it and settle it firmly on Roman soil. In philosophy Cicero was an eclectic, being almost wholly dependent on the Greek thinkers, so that his philosophical works are important more for their elegance of composi tion and beautiful style than for their matter, though this is important too, as it often deals with systems of philosophy otherwise unknown to us. His philosophical works are 'De Repub
lica,' a treatise on government in six books, of which only about a third is preserved; 'De Legibus,' also incomplete and probably origi nally in six books; it is a treatise on Church and state law; (Paradoxa' is an explanation of Stoic principles; (Consolatio,, of which only fragments exist, was occasioned by his daughter's death; 'Hortensius,' also fragmen tary, recommends the study of philosophy; (De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum,) in five books, is an exposition and criticism of the Highest Good and Evil as taught by- the Greek philoso phers; (Academica,) in two editions, of which the first, Lucullus, is extant, the last, Varro, only in fragments, is an exposition of the doctrines of the Academy; 'Tusculanze Dis putationes,' in five books, discusses matters pertaining to a happy life; (Timmus,' a frag ment, is a free translation of Plato's dialogue of the same name; 'De Natura Deorum,) in three books, deals with the Deity and his relation to the world; 'De Divinatione,) in two books, on the doctrine of soothsaying, with arguments against it; (Cato Maior, sive De Senectute,' a delightful essay on old age, con taining an outline of Cato's character, cheerful in tone and finished in style; 'De Fato,' a fragment, against the Stoic doctrine of Fate; 'LTlius, sive De Amicitia,) another charming essay on Friendship, written in vivid style and choice language; 'De Officiis,' in three books, is a system of ethics addressed to his son; 'De Gloria,' 'De Virtutibus' and 'De Auguriis,) with translations from Xenophon and Plato are now lost. Cicero also wrote (De Jure' and com posed the history of his consulship, which are also lost. His two poetic efforts, 'De suo Con sulatu' and 'De Temporibus Suis) were very unfortunate and subjected him to considerable ridicule. Cicero greatly dig-nified the art of letter-writing, and his letters, written in a graceful, conversational style, are a perfect storehouse of information for the history of his times, We possess in all 864 letters (includ ing 90 addressed to Cicero) distributed as fol lows: 'Ad Familiares,) 16 books; 'Ad Atti cum,' 16 books; 'Ad Quintum Fratrem,' 3 books; 'Ad Brutum,) 2 books, the genuineness of the latter being vigorously disputed and defended by many scholars. Coequal with Cicero as a writer was the great Julius Gesar (100-44 ri.c.), a man distinguished in many departments of life, being a great statesman, general, orator, historian and grammarian. His chief literary works that have reached us are 'Commentarii de Bello Galileo,' in seven books, and 'De Bello Civili,' in three books, written in elegant, simple and clear style. The eighth book 'De Bello Gallico' was written by A. Hirtius as was the (Bellum Alexandrinum,) but the 'Bel lum Africum' and the 'BeIlum Hispaniens0 are by unknown hands. Cornelius Nepos (99 24 a.c.), the friend of Catullus, Cicero and Atticus, was the author of many works, of which only a part of the (De Illustribus is extant, written in an easy, but often monoto nous and impure style. Caius Sallustius Cris pus (86-34 a.c.), the enemy of Cicero and Pompey, was the first to treat historical writ ing as an art, and took for his model Thucy dides. Of his works, the 'De Coniuratione Catilinw' and the 'Bellum Iugurthinum> have reached us entire, but of the histories, in five books, we have only fragments. Sallust's style is very concise and his language is artificial and archaic, and, though sometimes obscure, it is extremely forcible and vivid. Poetry in this period was cultivated by T. Lucretius Carus (96-55 n.c.), who wrote a didactic poem in six books, 'De Rerum Natura,' in which he tried to free the mind from all kinds of superstition by a rational study of nature, basing bis work on the philosophy of Epicurus. Lucretius was a masterful genius with great poetic instinct and independent spirit. On account of the poverty of the language in philosophical ex pression, the archaic style of the poem and the dry and abstruse subject-matter, it is often difficult to understand. Horace and Ovid were greatly influenced by him. The greatest poet of the period, and perhaps the greatest Rome ever produced, was C. Valerius Catullus (87 53 a.c.), the lyrist, from whom we have 116 poems on various subjects in various and some tunes rare metres. Catullus, impulsive and frank by nature, is pre-eminently the poet of passion, showing his best work in his short love songs, which are written in splendid, but simple and chaste, style.