Processional or Station Crosses.— In the Middle Ages, on certain religious processions, the altar cross was carried in advance of the clergy and, at some fixed places called stations, the procession stopped. The cross was then lowered to receive the devout kisses of the populace. From this act arose the special pro cessional cross (crux stationalis) which was mounted on the end of a staff and carried aloft. These crosses often were furnished with two lighted torches for night processions. On the arms were, frequently, the Greek letters Alpha and Omega (first and last letters of the alpha bet), one on each arm, to signify "the Beginning and the End.° Lastly, these crosses received the image of the crucified Savior, also medal lion decoration with bas-relief representations of scenes taken from the Old and New Testa ments, often chased or painted. The medallions of these elaborate, often richly bejewelled, pro cessional crosses, were termed mancusa.
Pectoral Crosses.—A ritualistic cross worn by bishops suspended round the neck by a chain hangs, as the name implies, on the breast. This pectoral cross acted as insignia of authority over a diocese, hence °when any bishop enters the diocese of another he wears the cross con cealed?' (Pugin).
Reliquary crosses of small size were made for use of the general public as amulets, and were extremely popular in the Middle Ages. They were termed encolpia. Cardinals and archbishops, for hierarchical distinction, are empowered to use a Latin cross furnished with two arms (patibula) or traverses. A special, distinctive three-barred cross is dedicated, solely, for the use of the Pope. These two styles of cross are known respectively as patri archal and papal crosses.
Heraldic It is said that the knight Crusaders, in their armor and with their faces hidden by helmets, would have been unrecogniz able by their followers had they not adopted different kinds of crosses to attach to their persons. This condition is generally referred to as the origin of the numerous kinds of crosses used in heraldry. There are no less than 300 different devices and forms known among the crosses of heraldry, and each has its own blazon or titular description. When a cross in heraldry is mentioned without any further blazon it implies the Greek cross. See HERALDRY.
Market crosses are crosses which were erected in the markets or trading places to re mind people so to deal with their customers as to be Christ-like. Most market-towns in Eng land and Scotland formerly had their crosses, and many of them are still in existence. Some of the chief are those of Bristol, Chichester, Cheddar, Edinburgh, Mahnesbury and Win chester.
Crucifix, a cross bearing the figure of Christ. It cannot be said at what time this emblem of the Christian faith began to be used, either by the Christian Church or by individual Christians. A general feeling of repugnance toward the in strument of punishment which, among the Romans, was reserved only for the most in famous class of criminals, would for a long time prevent the early Christians from rep resenting Christ upon the cross, and this feel ing would have to be conquered before the crucifix could come into use in public wor ship. There are certain remains which would
seem to show that crucifixes existed in the be ginning of the 3d century; but it is probable that all these were merely tokens of individual piety. It is certain that the most ancient cruci fixes known to exist belong to this class. Such, for example, is that painted in the Syriac evan gelistary of the year 582, contained in the Laurentian Library at Florence ; and such also is the pectoral cross of the superiors of Monza, which is said to have been a gift of Pope Greg ory the Great to Theodolinda, who founded the cathedral. Crucifixes appear to have been first used in public worship toward the end of the 6th century. The most ancient example known of a crucifix used for this purpose is one which, on the testimony of Saint Gregory of Tours, was painted in a church at Narbonne. For more than 100 years after this period they were still rare, and it was not till after the Trullan Coun cil, held at Constantinople in 692 which or dained that historic painting should be preferred to emblems or symbolical figures, that the images of Christ crucified began to multiply. As to the manner of representing Christ on the cross it appears to be unquestionable that, as a rule, the figures on the most ancient cruci fixes were engraved on gold, silver or iron crosses. On the pectoral cross of Monza, how ever, the figures are enameled on a gold cross. At a later period they were painted on wood, and it is only in the 9th century, in the pond ficate of Leo III, that the figure of Christ ap pears carved upon the cross in bas-relief. Although there can be no doubt that Christ, in accordance with the Roman custom of repre sentation, was crucified naked, all the most ancient crucifixes, almost without exception, represent him as clothed with a tunic reaching down to the feet. This practice lasted down to the 8th century, when it began to be modified, the body of Christ being no longer covered above the loins; and at length it became the custom to represent Christ, as in the crucifixes of the present day, entirely naked with the exception of a cloth about the loins. Another point in which the ancient crucifixes differ from modern ones is as to whether Christ is repre sented dead or alive. Until the 11th century he is represented alive; since that period he has been represented as dead. The first example of Christ being represented as dead is furnished by a manuscript in the Laurentian Library at Florence, belonging to about the year 1059. In the earlier crucifixes, also, the number of nails by which Christ is fixed to the cross is four, one through each hand and each foot, while in the more modem ones there are only three nails, one foot being laid above the other and a single nail driven through both.