France.-- Nothing remains in France in the way of church buildings dating from the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries. The only extant ecclesi astical mementoes in stone of this Merovingian period are numerous gravestones, capitals, mold ings, etc. A predominating motif in such carv ings is the complex interlacing lines like wattle work termed "lacertine" ornament. This method of intertwining and curving of numerous paral lel lines in rounded bas-relief is contrived in luillochcs (opposed waves intertwining to pro ince a series of circles, etc.), rosettes, even crosses. Crude foliation and tloriforms inter mingle with conventional bird forms (the sym bolic peacock is frequent), contorted interlacing dragon and dog forms. The vaults and walls of the church edifices as well as the paving sometimes consisted of mosaics. Altars, while mostly of stone, were sometimes of wood. (See ALTAR). In the Carlovingian (spelled also Carolingian) period (752-987) the powerful genius of Charlemagne becomes felt but, as Viollet-le-Duc says, our ideas of the primitive churches are very vague and it is only after the 10th century that we gain some concep tion of them. (See ARCHITECTUR•). The frag ments of ecclesiastical stone carving would make it appear that the same motifs as in the former period were in use: the interlaced ornament, the birds and other symbolic animals, but the loz enge (diamond) form is frequent. The treas uries of the church were becoming very rich in Ajects of art. Altar and ceremonial pieces, such as chalices, patens, crosses (see CHALICES, CROSSES, GOLDSM 'THING, etc.) were liberally donated by kings and nobles. These gold ob jects were often encrusted with garnets and ruby-colored glass paste in cloisons (bezels). Of such were the gold goblet and plateau re cently discovered at Gourdon and the chalice and paten of Saint Goslin, bishop of Toul, green and blue enamel (see ENAMEL) figuring in the latter. Textile fabrics of this period and the former are very rare, most of those discovered in France being attributed to Byzantine manu facture, but found in a number of French churches. With the 11th century we commence the second French Romanesque period. As the 9th century found but few of the Merovingian edifices still standing, it is likely they were built of very perishable material. But the buildings of the period in consideration were more stable, stone being the main substance used. The prophecy of the end of the world having lost its discouraging effect with the pass ing of the 10th century, when the disaster was to arrive, the perspective broadened. Their ground plans differed, many copying the form used by Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, which, in turn, was a reproduction of S. Vitali of Ravenna and others. (For further information see ARCHITECTURE). The ornament is becom ing more and more enriched with carvings of birds pecking at fruit, strapwork, geometric re peat forms ("dog-tooth,)) lozenge, "pearl and button))) and acanthus leaf. The tympanum over the door begins to obtain quite elaborately carved subjects as groups of ecclesiastical sym bols of the Evangelists, full figures of Christ, etc. In the second half of the 12th century uwheel-windows,'° with columnar radiations starting from a circle in the centre and reach ing to the periphery, appear at the extremities of the transepts above the western portal; these round windows are found on a number of churches of this century. Belfries are rare be fore the middle of the 12th century. The plac ing of vanes in the form of a cock, acting as wind indicators, dates very far back, the poet Wo'stall (end of the 10th century) mentions the cock on Winchester Cathedral, and the Bayeux tapestry shows one on Westminster Abbey. Many were gilded. They were a sym bol of the church to be ever watchful. The iconoclasts had done much to hinder the artistic expression of Christian sculptors and painters and former crude and unnatural de piction was largely due to fear of beauty in statuary or pictures leading to idolatry. But, by the 12th century, the figures coming from ecclesiastical artists were speaking a new lan guage, besides displacing zigzags, lozenges, meanders and other geometric designs on archi volts and voussures over doors where human forms are now found. High relief stone carv ing of large size figures are now seen on the facades and on the decorations at the sides of doorways, representing personages of the Old and New Testament. They are done by the best sculptors available. Most of them are clothed in long tunics surmounted by a kind of mantle opening in front and disclosing richly adorned materials, often edged with gold or silver lace. A peculiar feature of these statues is the extreme length of bust, protruding eyes, arched eye-brows, stiffness of movement, all vestiges of the Byzantine style; the same char acteristics prevail in bas-reliefs and paintings. They also retain the same Byzantine treatment of Grist enthroned, the right hand. in bene diction; symbolic representations of the Evan gelists surround Him (eagle, angel, lion and ox). His feet rest on a stool (scabellum); waves like water figure sometimes at the side of the stool. In other cases Christ is accom panied only by two angels, one on either side, holding censers and in the attitude of prayer. An altar dedicated to the archangel Michael is sometimes found in large churches, above the central doorway, or above the porch where the latter does not exist. Where the facade boasted two towers we sometimes find one has an altar dedicated to the archangel Gabriel and the other one dedicated to the archangel Raphael. All such holy personages are found !limbed (see NIMBUS), as also is the lamb (usually carry ing a cross), when representing Christ cruci fied, and also the dove, when representing the Holy Spirit. Other subjects of iconography of the period are the Sirena (terminating as a fish), Manicora (human head, globular body, tail of fish), elefans (elephant), and numerous other fantastic creature symbols as shown in the contemporary illustrations of the books. Mural painting was successful in the
Romanesque period. The walls and vaults were covered with fresco polychrome work. Un fortunately few have escaped the renovator, but the remnants afford some idea of the work done. Some columns were painted red, some capitals green; the vaults were, of course, sky blue. Proofs survive that often bas-relief figures were painted in a different color to the background, also that clothing was painted and gilded. Scriptural scenes were usual. We find in the church of Saint Savin, in Poitou, de pictions of the Holy History and the Apocalypse, history of Saint Savin and of Saint Cyprian, combat of Saint Michael with the dragon. Other mural paintings are at the churches of Saint Julien at Tours, Notre Dame de Rivieres, near Chinon; at Tavan, near Ile-Bouchard, etc. Per spective is absent.
Germany and England.— While France is devoid of Romanesque ecclesiastical buildings, a number still remain in Germany, such as those found in Cologne, Lorsch, Aix-la-Chapelle, Gernrode, Worms, Hildesheim (see ARCHITEC TuRE). In England, Edward the Confessor determined to rebuild Westminster Abbey after Norman style (he had lived in exile in Nor mandy) and it was finished in 1065. Part of the monastery still exists. There are also other Norman churches in England.
Illuminated Manuscripts.— The manuscripts of the Romanesque period naturally partake of the very numerous motifs found in the Roman esque plastic art. In the luxuriously illumi nated liturgical books are found border and - _ initial decorative motifs such as palmettes, acanthus leaves, vines, meanders (Grecian key pattern) and wattle work (clacertine"), or combinations of foliage and geometric figures. This complex interlaced work decoration of manuscripts is quite universal, spreading from the Lombard, Merovingian, Carolingian, West ern Gothic manuscript right into the 16th cen tury. Mingled with this involved interlacing is foliation, figures of humans, dogs, fishes, birds, dragons, etc. Repeat motifs, true copies of moldings taken from church edifices are often utilized in the manuscripts. The use of architectural motifs includes pillars, capitals, etc., and even extends to the point of absorbing the arch above the pillars. We find also the Oriental horse-shoe form of arch in these il luminated works of the period. Pointed arches also appear in these works centuries before in actual use in buildings (Hamann). Finally, we have whole sectional views of church inte riors, frequently with active human groups displayed. Among the most beautiful Caro lingian MSS. are the Sacramentary (about 750) in the National Library, Paris ; Ada Codex (about 775) in Municipal Library, Treves; Psalter of Dagulf us (about 780) in Imperial Library, Vienna. In Saint Gall, Switzerland, a magnificent collection of illuminated MSS. is in the Abbey and the Town Hall Library. Sonic of the masterpieces are the Sacramentary of Gelassius (8th century); Golden Gospels of Saint Gall (9th century) ; Evangelarium Lon guin (10th century). Evangeliary of Abbot Angilbert of Centula (about 793) is in Abbe ville; Evangeliary of Saint Medard of Soissons (8th century) is in'the National Library, Paris; Alcuin Bible (about 800) is in British Museum as is also the Golden Gospels of Athelstan (about 850).
Altar fronts (aittependia) of the richer churches are freqUently of gold or silver and made detachable; magnificent examples are that of Saint Ambrose at Milan; in S. Marco, Venice, Basel Cathedral. (See ALTAR). The Eucharist was preserved in receptacles shaped like towers or doves either suspended or kept in armoires (cupboards) ; they were very beau tifully enameled and embellished with relief work. Altars of the 11th and 12th centuries often were dedicated to several saints and enclosed a number of relics. The credences consisted of niches built into the wall, and are frequently elaborately carved; they are often on the epistle side, sometimes on both sides of the altar. They Meld altar vessels, litur gical books, etc. The piscina into which the water was poured after washing the chalice, etc., was also sometimes in the wall, at other times it stands on legs free near the altar. Baptismal fonts were mostly of stone, a few being of bronze or of lead. They are more or less tub-shaped; some round, some oval, others quarterfoil. They were frequently carved with bas-reliefs, some with columns. Some fonts are mounted on shafts. A peculiar custom of this period was that of erecting very substan tial towers in the centre of the large ceme teries surmounted by a lantern in which light was burned at night, a species of beacon. In the base of these towers was a truly orientated altar at which mass for the buried was read. Some of the tombs of this period were very large elaborately carved architectural monu ments, their sides consisting of arched colon nades; examples are seen in that of Treves Cathedral erected to Cardinal No (1142), and that of Henry I, Count of Champagne, for merly in the church of Saint Etienne at Troyes. In the 12th century commenced the practice of carving an effigy of the deceased for the tomb. Of such are those of Richard I (Cceur de Lion), Henry II and his queen at Fontevrault; painting brings out clearly the draperies of their costume. Some tombs are heightened with enameled copper or silver, as those of Henry I, formerly at Saint Etienne at Troyes. Great chandeliers or "crowns of light' were fre quently suspended in the churches of this period, such as those still existing at Hildes heim and Aix-la-Chapelle. See CHANDELIER;