In general there are two types of teachers' voluntary associations: (a) the general associa tions which aim to promote all the interests of teachers, such as the National Education Asso ciation and the State teachers' associations, and (b) specialized associations which are limited to some special subject or to some particular ac tivity of school work, such as kindergarten, in dustrial training, English, music, agriculture, do mestic arts, science, health and hygiene, play grounds, or others.
The early associations were largely cultural. They were not subdivided into sections, in fact, the attendance was so small that this was not possible, even if it had been considered. In re cent years the national and State associations have differentiated their work until the sections have become highly specialized. Women play a much more prominent part than formerly. In 1911 the National Education Association had its first woman president. It was an incident worthy of mention that in the same year the National Union of Teachers of England and Wales had a woman presiding officer for the first time. Little thought was given at first to the economic and material needs of the teacher. In the State associations there is a great inter est in educational legislation and also in the raising of professional standards. The teach ers' associations in some of the larger cities are largely concerned with the economic betterment of their membership and related legislation.
Teachers' voluntary associations, both gen eral and special, have made a large contribu tion to educational progress. To the teachers these associations mean renewed enthusiasm, professional growth and material improvement. To the State they are often the (greatest single educational factor.p Active teachers' associa tions are essential to progressive educational policies.
In England a much larger percentage of teachers is represented in the associations than in America. The National Union of Teachers, which was organized in 1870, has a membership of . over 70,000 teachers. More attention is given to economic conditions and material needs. It has actively supported candidates for Parliament and for a time its secretary was a member of Parliament. The membership was originally limited to teachers in elementary schools, but more recently the Union has been open to other teachers.
The Headmasters' Conference, organized in 1869, and the Association of Headmasters, or ganized in 1890, give special attention to ques tions relating to school management and pro fessional matters. The Assistant Masters' As sociation is an organization of secondary school teachers and is interested in part in the eco nomic betterment of its membership.
The largest general association in Scotland is the Educational Institute of Scotland. The Scottish Class Teachers' Association also has a large enrolment. The Association of Head masters of Secondary Schools and the Second ary Education Association of Scotland are organized in the interests of teachers in the sec ondary schools.
There are various types of educational asso ciations in France. Many of them illustrate the power in co-operation between teachers and others interested in educational problems. The League of Doctors and Families organized in 1902 for the improvement of scientific methods and hygienic conditions in the school includes in its membership teachers, parents, physicians and others. The Society for the Psychological Study of the Child, which was organized for the study of child psychology and general educa tional methods, includes not only teachers but scientists and others interested in a theoretical as well as practical study of educational ques tions. The work of these associations has brought about the organization of international congresses for the scientific study of educa tional questions. Associations of teachers and instructors in France have a wide influence. The discussions as to instruction, curriculum and discipline brought out in the meetings are published in their bulletins and principals are quite free as to the adoption of new methods in their schools.
The largest organization of its kind in Ger many is the German Teachers' Association formed in 1871. Over 90 per cent of the teach ers in the elementary schools are members of the association. It is highly organized through out the country, including local associations of a general character and sections for teachers in special subjects. The chief interest is the pro fessional and economic betterment of teachers. Its strength is in the centralized organization. There is also an association of secondary school teachers, the aim of which is to improve the conditions of teachers in schools of secondary grade. Associations which enlist the interests of the public-spirited citizen as well as the teacher and which aim to promote general edu cational activities are not found.
Bibliography.— Foos, C. S.,