DOUKHOBORS. A Russian sect. The name means spirit-wrestler, and was used to describe those who were considered by the Orthodox Russian Church to be wrestling against the Holy Spirit (cp. the name Icono bdrs, image-wrestlers, those who objected to the use of icons or images). The sect began to come into promi nence during the second half of the eighteenth century. It was the policy of Catharine II. to tolerate them, but they suffered some measure of oppression, being re garded as enemies of Church and State alike. At first they were tolerated by Paul also, but afterwards some of them were arrested and punished. Under Alexander I. (1801-25) they were allowed to congregate and to form a settlement at the " Milky Waters " near the sea of Azof. Here they organised themselves into an industrial, economic, and religious community. Their teaching was not enshrined in books, but was transmitted orally and in large part secretly. They acknowledged one God, believed in the pre-existence of souls, and denied the transmission of Adam's sin. They held Jesus to be the Son of God in the same sense in which other men are the sons of God, and believed that he is born and rises again spiritually in the heart of each believer. Men are enlightened by the inward word rather than by an external revelation. This inward light is smothered in most men by luxurious food and clothing. All men are equal, and, being the children of God, they do not re quire a Government. It is forbidden to go to war, to carry arms, and to take oaths. The true Church of God is world-wide and invisible, and has no common creed. The Scriptures are symbolical and mystical. The only true priest is the Christ within; no external priest is necessary; external sacraments have no efficacy. Mar
riage again needs no external ceremony. For the most part the DoukhobOrs have been vegetarians, total ab stainers, and non-smokers. During the years 1841-1844 the Doukhohdrs were transported to the Caucasus. Here they formed three settlements, and, devoting themselves to agriculture and cattle-breeding, became prosperous. In course of time a dispute arose about their leadership. and two parties, the " Large Party " (followers of Peter Verigin) and the " Small Party " (followers of L. V. Kalmik•Ova's brother). Peter Verigin brought about a religious revival, which tended to enforce greater strict ness. This conduced to aggravate trouble when the enforcement of conscription (introduced into the Cau casus in 1887) was in question. From being passive conscripts, the DoukhobOrs became (after 1895) uncom promising objectors, with the result that they had to submit to persecution and punishment. They were im prisoned, flogged, even killed sometimes, and their settlements were broken up. So great was the suffering that Leo Tolstoy and others started a public agitation against the persecution. The result was that in 189S the DoukhobOrs, with certain exceptions, received per mission to leave Russia. Funds were then raised and arrangements made for the migration of 7,363 members of the community to Canada. Here they established a Commune, called the " Christian Commune of Universal Brotherhood." This or the " Universal Community of Christian Brotherhood " is the name they prefer to be known by. See Aylmer Maude, A Peculiar People: The Doukhabors, 1904; and cp. John F. Fraser, Canada as it is; W. Fairweather, The Background of the Gospels, 190s.