Surface and Soil.—The mountain range at the north-east corner of Persia is called the Mountains of Khorasan, which is a continuation of the Western Hindu-Koosh, the ancient Paropamisus, otherwise called the Ghor Mountains in the north of Afghanistan. The range is in some places 200 miles wide, and has peaks from 4000 to 5000 feet above the sea-level ; it is crossed by numerous minor ridges, the valleys of which are drained by many rivets. Where the mountain ranges approach the Caspian Sea and turn to the west, between 55° and 56° E. loug., they probably occupy less than 60 miles iu width, and have few high summits ; but westward of this point commences the portion called the Elburz Mountains, which have many lofty summits, of which Mouut Demavend (a once active volcano) is 14,600 feet high; and several of the peaks are covered with snow during the greater part of the year. The tract of couutry which extends along the southern aide of the Elburz Mountains, and between it and the desert in the interior of Iran, may vary between 20 and 30 miles in width. It is fur the most part stony and sterile; but iu the valleys watered by the rivers Shah-Rud and Sefid-Rud it is fertile. The Elburz Mountains do not descend with a steep declivity towards the north, but are skirted by a hilly tract varying from 20 to 30 miles in width, furrowed by many valleys, in which there is much fine timber, and which are cultivated to a considerable extent. The Shah-Rud is composed of two principal head streams, which flow through fertile longitudinal valleys between the mountains, and unite a little west of 50' E. long., whence the united stream runs west-north-west to the plain of Tarom, where near Menjil it meets the Sefid-Rud coming from the north-west. The Seftd-Rud carries down the waters that flow from the high undulating and in parts mountainous country to the east of the basin of Lake Urmia, and also a part of the drainage of the belt of highlands that skirt the Shahu or Zagros Mountains in Persian Kurdistan. From the Sehend Mountains to the south of the plain of Tabriz the watershed between the Lake of Urumiyeh and the Sefid liud runs south-south-east, the more southern part, between 36° and sr N. lat., being called the Kibleh Mountains, which throw off several ranges of hills eastward and north-eastward. The highest of these secondary ranges are the Kafilan-Koh, which separates the Miana River from the Kizil-Uzen, tho largest of the feeders of the Sefid-Rud. The Kizil-Uzen (the Turkish name for the Sefid-Rud, both meaning ' white river') rises on the eastern declivity of the Zagros, near the Naukhan Pass, and runs in a very winding and impetuous course toward. the north-east to near 36° 20' N. lat., 48° E. long., where it sweeps round to the north-west near Mount Demirli, and then north, along the eastern bane of the Kafilan-Kob. In this part of its course the Kizil-Uzen runs between deep precipitous banks, end, after receiving the 'Leiden River (which flows north-west from the plain of Sultanlyeli), on its right bank it unites with the Miami River Lear the town of Mama, about 37° 25' N. lat., 47° 40' E. long. The united stream, here called the Sefid-Rud, immediately sweeps round to the north-east, and then to the south-east, in which direction it flows for about 100 miles through the plain of Tarom, the upper part of which is very narrow, the high mountains, seamed by ravines and narrow valleys, reaching down on both sides nearly to the banks of the river, but wider at the lower extremity. The territorron the left bank of the ricer, along the southern declivity of the 3Iassula Moun tains, is also called the Pushti-Kuh. The plaiu of Tarom (which is only about 500 feet high above the Caspian) produces excellent cotton and abundance of fruits. At its eastern extremity the Sefid-Rud receives the Shah-Rud, and the river then flows through the Rudbar PaSts, between the Elburz and the Massula Mountains, into the plain of Gillian, and enters the Caspian Sea a little east of 50° E. long. and about 30 miles E. from the town of Resht. The Massnla Mountains, which run north-north-west from the Rudbar Pass and nearly parallel to the Caspian, are from 6000 to 7000 feet high above the sea, and about 2000 feet above the table-land. To the west of it, along the right bank of the Sefid-Rud, at a distance of from 6 to 30 miles, is another higher range, one of the passes in which, called Ak-Gednk, is about 8000 feet above the level of the sea. This high range bounds the table-land of Media in the north. It is covered with snow for many months in the year.
The narrow tract of level ground which surrounds the southern extremity of the Caspian Sea, and goes under the name of the Plain of Ghilan and Mazanderan, extends from the mouth of the river Gourgan, which falls into the moat south-eastern angle of the sea, to the mouth of the river Aatamh. This tract considerably exceeds
300 miles in length; the width varies from 5 to 30 miles ; the level is very little above that of the Caspian Saa. In climate and productions this region bears an extraordinary resemblance to intertropical coun tries. The swampy tracts along the shores of the Caspian Sea are overgrown with saline plants and canes. In the interior are extensive forests, mulberry plantations, rice-fields, vineyards, orchards, orange ries. and sugar and cotton plantations.
The western portion of the plain of Ghilan separates the Caspian Sea from the table-land of Azerbijan, which constitutes the most northern portion of the great table land of Iran, and lies between 36' and 40' N. lat, 44' and 49' E. long. The general elevation of this table-land is 4500 feet above the sea-level. The tableland is bounded on the west by the numerous ranges of the Kurdistan Mountains, and by the 31assula Mountains on the east; it is also diversified with numerous cross ranges, one of which runs nearly eastward from the Sehend Mountains to the north of the great bend of the Sefid-Rud below Miens, along the edge of the basinsof Lake Urumiyeh, the Sefld-Rad, and the Aran To the north of this range the Aji flows westward from Mount Sevilan, a lofty summit 12,000 feet high, to the lake, crossing the plain of Tabriz a little to the north of that city. Mount Sevilan, which is the culminating point of a more northerly range, is also the source of the Derahi, or Kara-So, which flows past. Anlebil snd thence northward to join the Ames.
The surface of the table-land is in parts hilly, but generally the hills do not rise into mountains; between 36' 30' and 37* 30' N. lat., several high ranges occur, as the mountains of Kibleh and the Kafilan Koh, before mentioned, which perhaps rise to 2000 feet above their base. The levels between these ranges are not in general extensive enough to be called plains, though in some parts they are several miles wide. But farther north there are several extensive plains, among which that surrounding the Lake of Urumiyeh is by far the largest. Though in several places traversed by narrow and low ranges of hills, which terminate at a small distance from the shores of the lake, the plain extends in general from 20 to 30 miles from it, and at Tabriz even 50 miles. From the hills and mountains which inclose the basin of the lake great numbers of perennial streams descend, snd are much used for irrigation. The rice-fields are extensive, and produce rich crops. The meadows are also large, and horses, buffaloes, cows, and sheep are abundant on the pasture-grounds. Orchards, which are large and very numerous In this plain, yield abundance of peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums of all sorts, cherries, pear!, apples, and grapes. There are also plantations of poplar and chinar, but the mountains and hills are generally devoid of wood. In the other plains, which are much less In extent, and have not the advantage of abundant water, the cultivation Is limited, and they are chiefly used as pasture-grounds by the nomadic tribes. The climate of this table land is cold in winter, but very temperate in summer. During several of the winter months it is covered with snow, and the cold is some times very intense, except on the plain around Lake Ururniych. The royal family of Persia abandon the town of Teheran in summer, and retire to Sultaniyeb, in the southern districts of the table-land.
The mountains of Kurdistan occupy a broad belt of country along the western edge of the table-land of Iran. Mount Ararat may be considered as standing st the northern extremity of the mountains of Kurdistan. [ARARAT.] From its southern base mountains branch off to the south and south-west, which inclose the Lake of Van; and the mountain region then extends southward, with a width varying from 70 to 180 miles, till its termination in the mountains of Farsistan, about 30' N. lat The northern portion of this extensive mountain region is nominally subject to the Turkish emperor ; but the nomadic tribes which inhabit it are nearly independent under their hereditary chiefs. The mountain system consists of several parallel ridges, between which are many narrow deep valleys, and a few plains fitted for pasturage. The declivities are wooded with oak, which, near the base of the mountains, grows to a large tree, but higher up is stunted.