The Russian commander-iu-chief Diebitch died suddenly ou June 9th, and was succeeted by Paakievitch, who had distinguished himself in Asia against the Persians and the Turks. Paskievitch resolved to cross the Vistula, and ho accomplished his plan by march ing near the Prussian frontier, where his magazines were in perfect safety, and where the bridges by which ho effected his passage were prepared.
Meanwhile the national government resigned its authority, and General Krokowiecki was chosen president of the government. The town being iii want of food, a considerable force was detached to collect provision in the provinces on the right bank of the Vistula, and only 30,000 men were left to defend Warsaw. Provisions were supplied, but the forces sent for them could not reach Warsaw in time, which. being attacked on September 6th by the Ilutralans, was surrenders Ito them by Krukowiecki on the 8th. The army, followed by the members of the diet and many leading persons, retired towards the frontiers of Prussia, which they entered on October 8th; whilst another part of the army was compelled to retire on the Austrian territory.
The consequences of the failure of this insurrection were most deplorable to Poland. The emperor Nicholas exercised the utmost severity against the Poles. Many individuals who had taken a part in le insurrection were condemned either to the mines of Siberia or lent to solve as soldiers in the Caucasus and other Asiatic provinces. Ile constitution was formally abrogated, and another form of govern bent, called the Omanio Statute, introduced. The nuiversities of Vilna and Warsaw, as well as many minor schools, were abolished, and the mblio libraries and museums were carried away to St. Petersburg and Miler parts of Russia. Various other measures were taken to destroy the nationality of Poland, to abolish its language, and to overthrow its religion, all of which it is said have been persistently carried out up to the present time. After the surrender of Warsaw a great number of the patriots emigrated to foreign countries. In 1832 Poland was declared in integral part of the Russian empire. A feeble attempt at independ nice was made at Cracow in 1846, which led to the annexation of this last remnant of Polish nationality to Austria. [Ceacow; °sum.] POLAlt COUNTRIES AND SEAS. The countries and seas which lie between the northern coasts of America and the North Pole are noticed in the article Xonrn-Wert Passscre ; those which are situated on the other sides of the North Pole are described under their respective nausea. [GREENLAND; ICELAND ; SCITZBERUN ; Nova ZEMBLA ; SIBERIA.] It only remains to notice certain conditions of the countries and seas which surround the North Pole, and then to give au account of the discoveries which have been made in the seas surrounding the South Pole.
The sots which surround the North and South Poles are named the Arctic Ocean or North Polar Sea, and the Antarctic Ocean or South Polar Sea. These two oceans are bounded by two imaginary circles which surround the globe at about 66° 30' N. lat. and 66' 30' S. lat. At the Poles themselves there is only one day of six months, during which the sun never seta, and one night of six months, when the sun never rises. In the spaces comprised between the Polar Circles and
the Poles the quantities of continuous day and coutinuous night vary according to the distances from the Poles. Thus, at the north point of Nova Zembla, 75° N. lat., there is uninterrupted light from May 1st to August 12th, and uninterrupted darkness from November 8th to February 9th. At the Arctic Circle the greatest length of continuous light is 24 bourn at the summer solstice, or Midsummer's-Day, whilst, at the same time, at the Antarctic Circle, the sun is 24 hours below the horizon ; and the reverse at the opposite seasons of the year. The general coldness of the Polar Regions arises from the sun's rays striking the earth obliquely, as at the equator the heat is produced by the sun's rays falling upon the earth vertically.
The two great continents of the Northern Hemisphere terminate towards the North Pole near 70° N. lat., which parallel may therefore be considered as the general boundary-line of the North Polar Sea. The lands comprised within this polar basin, besides the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and America, include the northern parts of Greenland and Nova Zembla, the islands of Spitzbergen, the Liakehov Islands, and the great mass of islands which lie opposite to the northern coasts of British America. The North Polar Sea has only one entrance from the Pacific Ocean, by Behring's Strait, the narrowest part of which, between East Cape and Prince of Wales Cape, is only about 18 miles across. From the Atlantic Ocean, besides the great entrance by the Spitzbergen Seas, it is now known that there are entrances by Smith's Sound from Baffin's Bay, and by the Wellington Channel from Barrow's Strait, A large portion of the Arctic Ocean is constantly filled with extensive fields and moving masses of thick and impenetrable ice. This portion seems to extend round the Pole at variable distances from the shores of Siberia, Russian America, and British America. Io an easterly direction it extends from the north point of Nova Zembla to the western side of Melville Island. Here the navigation westward up Barrow's Strait ceases, the 'pack-ice,' as it is called, presenting an impassable barrier. On entering the Arctic Ocean from the Pacific through Behring's Strait, the most daring and skilful navi gators have not been able to penetrate much farther iu a northern direc tion than 70° N. lat. Captain Cook, in his last voyage, after passing through Behring's Strait, sailed as far westward as North Cape, ISO* W. long.; but here the masses of ice prevented any farther advance. If the navigator, after passing through Behring's Strait, turns eastward, he finds, in summer, between the American shores and the pack-ice, a narrow passage much encumbered with broken ice, and may thus with some difficulty reach the most north-eastern point or the Ame rican continent; or, having reached Baring Island, may turn north ward and try to accomplish the North-West Passage by following either of the tracks of Captain M'Clure.