The limits of incline above quoted are the maximum ones which can be worked economically by locomotive power, and whenever it might become necessary to overcome differences of level, which could not so be passed, it would be indispensable-to resort either to the use of inclined planes, or to tunnel through the hill which interposes itself. The, mechanical principles upon which these considerations mainly turn are, firstly, upon a railway the traction does not exceed ith of the effort required to move a load on a level and well-made turnpike road ; or as the traction ou the latter is as I to 30 of the load, it is on a railway as 1 to 210 or to 250; at an inclination of I in 250 it is already about as I to 100; and it thence rapidly increases until with an inclination of I in about 150 a well-made carriage would, if left to itself, descend an incline by the mere effect of gravity ; or, in other words, the force required to draw the load up the incline must not only be in excess of that required to overcome the friction, but also to raise a portion of the dead weight of the train. The practical ques tions connected with the nature of the inclines admissible on a railway, it may be added, may often be materially affected by the use of bank engines upon the heaviest part of the inclines ; but however the difficulties of such inclines may be obviated they must always con stitute a burden upon the working expenses of a railway, so that they should never be admitted unless at the last extremity. As far as possible alternate directions of inclination should be avoided, and the rise should take place as nearly as may be to some engine station, whence a supplementary engine could be obtained if needed. Curves of small radius are nearly as unfavourable to the economical working of a railway as are heavy inclines, and they therefore should only be resorted to in the last extremity.
The only other special considerations to be taken into account in the laying out the plans of railways are, firstly, that they should cross exist ing roads as seldom as possible on a level; and secondly, that the stations should be made in positions where they can easily be approached. All that relates to the execution of embankments, bridges, viaducts, cul verts under or over passages, resembles so closely the same description of work required in ordinary engineering operations, that they may fairly be discussed under the exclusively practical section of the forma tion of the road.
Obtaining an Act of Parliament.—As the railways in England are constructed by associations of private individuals, with a view to their own pecuniary advantage, as well as with a view to the public benefit, it is necessary that, on the one hand, legislative restrictions should be imposed to protect the interests of all who may, either directly or indirectly, be affected by the execution of such works ; whilst, on the other hand, the promoters of the scheme should be protected against the imposition of the landowners, and should be vested with the posers to carry their scheme into effect, if the legislature should consider it to be advisable. Lands, buildings, water-courses, canals, roads, 8:c., have from time to time to be interfered with ; and whilst justice requires that time various parties interested in them should be fairly and liberally indemnified for any loss accruing to them or to their property, either directly or contingently, and that every unnecessary interference with the existing rights of property should be avoided, it is equally necessary for the public benefit that opera tions of this description should not be defeated by objections inspired by prejudice, or by mistaken private interest. It has been with a view of reconciling both of these conditions that the Houses of Parlia ment have boiled a code of inatnietione, known under the name of the I standing orders, for the purpose of affording the parties interested the means of stating their respective cases before the tribunals appointed to examine the necessity for the legislative powers sought to be obtained; and although there are no doubt instances in which great apparent injury is thus inflicted, on the whole the system of referring railway bills to select committees of the two Houses has (to quote a well-known phrase) "worked well." The opportunity thus afforded for factious opposition is, perhaps, one of the worst evils attending this system of legislation ; and it often leads to a frightful expense. The
act for the London and Birmingham Railway cost at least 72,000/. ; that for the Great Western, cost 88,000/. ; and that for the Brighton Railway, a still larger sum. The standing orders and the legislation of railway companies have been frequently modified; but at the present day they may be stated to be (briefly) as follows.
Bills for the establishment of a joint-stock company for the execution of a railway, or for the increase of the powers of any existing company, are of the second elms of private bills. Notices of the intention to apply to parliament for the necessary powers must be given once in the months of October and November, or in one of them, in the London, Edinburgh, or Dublin Gazette, and in three consecutive weeks in some one and the same newspaper of the county in which the lands such bill refers to may be situated ; if the works should extend over more than one county, then the notices must also appear in the journals published in London, Edinburgh, or Dublin, as the case may be. Notices are to be given, in writing, to the landowners, lessees, and occupiers, of the intention to apply for the bill, and these notices must be served before the 15th of December previous to the session in which the application to parliament is to be made. Plans and books of reference of the lands and houses to be taken, together with a section of the intended line, are to be deposited before the 30th of November with the clerk of the peace, or the sheriff clerk, of the respective counties traversed, with the Board of Trade, and at the private bill offices of the Houses of Parliament; and in cases where it is proposed to execute works upon tidal lands, within range of spring tides, similar plans and sections have to be deposited with the Board of Admiralty. The petition for the bill is to be deposited at the Private Bill Offices on or before the 23rd of December, and it must be accom panied by a declaration from a parliamentary agent, and a copy of the proposed bill : in the declaration by the agent, he shall distinctly state the class of the bill, and the powers sought to be obtained by it. Printed copies of the bill must also be deposited with the Board of Trade, on or before the 23rd of December; and with the Admiralty, if necessary. Copies of the estimates, declarations, lists of owners, lessees, and occupiers, are to be deposited at the Private Bill Offices on or before the 31st of December ; and in cases wherein new companies are proposed to be established, a declaration must be made, stating the amount of capital, the number of shares to be issued, the number sub scribed for, and the number paid up. In some cases, copies of the last-named documents are required to be deposited also at the Vote Office. The plans required are to be drawn to a scale of 4 inches to a mile, and must show the lino or situation of the whole work, and the lands, &c., it is intended to traverse ; and whenever it is proposed to apply for powers to make lateral deviations, the limits of those deviations must be distinctly indicated. Enlarged plans of buildings, court-yards, gardens, &c., to a scale of not less than of an inch to every 100 feet, must be added; the distances from one of the termini must be indicated in miles and furlongs; those portions of the line which are to be executed in tunnel must be indicated by dotted lines ; and every deviation or alteration of turnpike or other roads, of rivers, or of canals, must be clearly set forth. The book of reference must contain the names of the owners, lessees, or occupiers of the houses and lands to be interfered with, and it must contain a description of the nature of the property to be taken. The sections are to be drawn to the same horizontal scale as the plan, and to a vertical scale of not less than one inch to every 100 feet ; they must show the natural level of the ground, the intended level of the work, the relative heights of the embankments and cutting, the datum line, and the rails' level ; the height and span of the various bridges, viaducts, &c., are to be indicated, as also are to be indicated the alterations proposed to be made in the levels of the existing roads or other communications. The estimate must be signed by the person making it. In the ease of railway bills, a deposit of 8 per cent. on the amount of the estimate must be made before the 15th of January.