The Byzantine commence with Valentinian and Valens, A.D. 264, and have on one side the figure of the Emperor, on the other that of Christ or the Virgin ; dignitaries and private persons of the epoch also employed leaden seals, with Christ or tho Virgin, or only their own names and titles. The devices of the sells of the Christians at this epoch were fishes, fishermen, lambs, and vines. After the fall of the Western Empire the use of the leaden butler was assumed by the Popes, the oldest known being that of Deus delit, A.D. 615.667, with a male figure standing between a lion and a Lamb and A.11. Small seals were inscribed only with the names or monograms till Honorina 11., 1121-30; but at the 12th century, the bulls became larger, and the name of the pope appeared in full, with the heads of St. Peter .and St. Paul, and a cross between them ; the ordinal after the papal name dates from the 11th century. Besides these the Popes used the so-called seal of the Fisherman, or privy seal, on which was St. Peter fishing : this was impressed on red -wax en placard. The use of the bullro in Western Europe continued till the 16th century, the Emperors of Germany, princes of Calabria, the doges of Venice, dukes of Lorraine, and counts of Toulouse, continuing to use them. In the 13th century no priest was allowed to travel without a permission sealed with a leaden seal. The use of golden coals commenced about the 10th century, having been first used by the Byzantine Emperors and Charlemagne, Venetians and .others, and occasionally for important documents as late as the 16th century, Henry VIII. and Francis I. having appended gold seals to their treaty at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Silver seals were sometimes used by the Byzantine Emperors, the princes of Capua, and other Italian potentates. But all these were gradually superseded by wax seals. On the fall of the Roman Empire the art of seal engraving was lost in the West, but lingered at Constantinople. The early kings of France from Carloman, A.D. 769, to Louis VIII., 1176, used antique gems. Sealing en placard con tinued in France from Clovis I., .s.n. 481, to Louis le Gros, 1108, in whose reign seals were first appended, and in Germany till the close of the 12th century.
The seals of the 31erovingians represent busts with long hair, the Carlovingians bearded profiles, but appear to be impressions of ancient gems. The title of Dci gratin commences with Charlemagne ; Hugh Capet, 987, is first seen with a sceptre. Robert has an oval pointed seal svitb a half-length figure. Henry I.,1031, was the first who used the seal of Majesty as it is called, representing the king seated on the chair of Louis 1 1.,110a, is the only one with an equestrian figure on the reverse. Small counterscals on the reverse esuninence with Philip II., 11.5. Louis 1 X., 1252, first appears with a crown floury. John 11., 1350, has two eagles' heads on his chair. Louis X11., 1500, a double gryphon. The king seated on the throne continued to be the tyre, with the exception of the great seal of Louis Philippe, ashlar has on one side his head in profile, and on the other his arms or the two tables of the charter and law. The early seals of the Gerneur empire are like the French. Henry II. introduced the seated figure, which, after Frederick I. 1493, was abolished. Denmark used bronze seals ; the Swedish resemble the German ; those of Spain date from the 12th century ; the doges of Venice, 1306, used gold 'mike.
The seal was placed alter the name of the chancellor or his deputy in white wax ; an incisiou in form of a cross, or with saltire edges turned back, having been made in the parchment and passed through, so as to form a cake or mass on both aides. This mode of sealing ea placard being easily forged, the counter-seal was introduced by the princes of Lombardy, A.D. 901. The custom of appending seals was
not introduced earlier than the 12th century; tails commenced in the 13th century, leather, hempen string, silk, parchment, were used for the purpose, and the seals were placed at the bottom, top, sides, or even all round the document. As many as 350 seals were appended to one document presented to the Council of Constance. Owing to the injuries to which seals were liable, it was not unusual from the 14th to the 16th centuries to protect them by a little frame work or terse of rush twisted round the seal; in the 14th century a wrapper of paper, neat bands of the same, beech, bay, and oak leaves, were placed over seals, and in France in the 15th century they were protected by tin boxes.
The French regal seals differ from the English and German by tho use of the counterseal, which is not more than an inch in diameter; while the great seal of England retained an impression of the same magnitude on both aides. In France, during the let race, the seal was held by the referendarins, under the 2nd, or Merovingian, by the archichancdicr ; aprocrisairc, archinotaire, archichapelain, under the 3rd, or Capets, by the chancellor, who originally wore the seal round his neck, but when the seal became of large size, it was deposited in a box, and the chancellor always carried the keys about him in a purse, and theekox was carried in certain ceremonies on a caparisoned horse. In this box were three others : let, for the great seal and counter-seal ; the 2nd, that of Dauphiany; the 3rd, that of the order of St. Louis, besides which, the king had his private seal. Yellow wax was used for the impressions, except for ordinances, edicts, and letters entitled " Toua presents et h venir," which were sealed with green wax, and the same colour was used for those of Dauphigny ; other documents of which were sealed in red. In 1789, the office of chancery disappeared, but a new one was re-established in 1808, and superseded by a com mission in 1811, and in 1630 incorporated with the office of minister of justice.
The earliest seals of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs, Offa, Ethelwolf, and Edgar, are en placard; of Cocnwulf, 755, there is a leaden bulls ; of Edward the Confessor, two wax seals pendent. Coke mentions seals of Edwy, A.D. 956, of dffa, A.D. 755-94. The Normans introduced wax seals, at first of moderate size, having on the obverse the king in armour on a caparisoned horse galloping, and on the reverse, the king seated on a throne, a type maintained to the present day. The expense of engraving a new matrix being very considerable, the monarchs were content to use those of their predecessors. Edward II. added to that of Edward 1., and Edward III. used the same with the addition of two fleur-de-lis. Edward III. altered his seal eight times for political pur poses. Richard II. used his father's last matrix, merely inserting his own name. Henry IV. and V., the same, by the same process. Henry VI. a new matrix, like the French, with a counter-seal. Edward IV. a new gold seal, like that of Bretigny; Edward V. his father's, and Richard III. the same. Henry VII. a new matrix, like that of Edward IV., and henry VIII. one in the style of Francis I. The matrix of the seal of Henry IV. was of gold, the chancellor used a silver matrix, which was of 10 lbs. weight, and cost 13/. 10s. for material alone. The great seals of Scotland commence with Duncan 11., 1090, with equestrian and seated royal figures. Alexander I., 1107, introduced the counter-seal. There were also great seals for Ireland, commencing with Henry II., a leaden matrix of which is known. There are, besides, the privy seals, having the royal arms only.