That part of Songaria which belongs to the government of Khobdo appears to be almost entirely occupied by wandering tribes, and culti vation is hardly known. There are neither towns nor villages.
Cornmerce.—The town of Kuldsha is the centre of a considerable commerce with China. The most active branches seem to be the trade with China proper, and with the town of Akaoo in Chinese Turkistan ; that with Semipalatinskaya in Siberia is less important. The principal imports are Chinese manufactures, which are oonsumed by the Chinese and Mandshoo families established in Songaria. Some of these articles, especially chinaware, are sold to the nomadic tribes.
The road from Kuldaha to Aksoo In Chinese Turkistan runs directly south, and crosses the Thianahan Mountains a considerable distance east of the town of Aksoo. On the summit of the range a space 10 miles wide is covered with snow. The principal imports from Aksoo are cetton stuffs, made in the place or imported from Kashgar and Khoten. By this route also a few of the manufactures of Hindustan are brought to Knldaha, especially muslins of indiffer ent qualities; some stuffs, half silk and half cotton ; and several kinds of calicoes.
The road from Kuldaha to Semipalatinskaya separates from the road to China proper at the foot of the Tokty Mountains running north wards to Tarbagatai, and from this place it continues north, passing along the western banks of Lake Zaisang, until it enters Russia, where it turns north-west to Semipalatinekaya. The Russians import only cattle and sheep ; and this they are permitted to do not as Russians but as subjects of some khan of the Khirghis Cossaks. They are paid in cotton stuffs of Aksoo, Kaahgar, and Khoten.
Government—The government of this provinoe is on a military footing. The commander-in-chief of the troops is also invested with the civil authority. The army stationed in Songaria probably conaista of more than 60,000 men, of whom 23,000 are quartered in Kuldsha and the neighbourhood. The whole population of the country probably falls abort of two millions, and three-fourths of this number are wandering tribes, wbo are very lightly taxed. The expenses therefore are much greater than the revenue'. The Chinese govern ment sends many goods from China, which are partly disposed of to the Klairghis for cattle and sheep for the soldiers : a able quantity of silver also is annually received from Peking.
114tery.---After the eastern Mongols had conquered China, in the second half of the 13th century, the greater part of that patron settled in th000nquared countries. Thus the population of their own native country was considerably diminished ; and the Western Mon gols, or Oloth, also called Kalmuck., began to extend farther to the east, and to increase in numbers. On the downfall of the Mongol dynasty in Chins, in 1366, the greatest number of the Eastern Mongols who bad been settled in China perished in war, and only a small remnant returned to their native country. They found that
their neighbours the Kalmuck. were now more powerful than them selves ; but the great fame which the Eastern Mongols bad acquired by the exploits of °hones Khan and the conquest of Chine, kept the Oloth in awe for more than two centuries. In the 17th century how ever a war broke out between the Khalkae Mongols and the Galdan, or Khan of the Oloth, who wished them to acknowledge his supremacy as he had compelled the Songares and other tribes to do. The Khalkas were expelled from their country, and compelled to fly towards the country occupied by the Sunnites and Tehagar, two tribes which were already subject to the Mandshoos. To avoid destruction they sub mitted to the Chinese emperor (1688), and requested protection against their enemies. The emperor Kang-isi sent three armies agaiust the Galdan. These forces, aided by Tee-rang Arabdan, the khan of the Songeres, defeated the Galdan in several engagements, so that ho was abandoned by nearly all his followers, and died by taking poison (1697). The Khalkas Mongols now returned to the country from which they had been expelled by the Oliith. On the ruins of the power of the Oloth roes that of the Songares. Tee-vang Arabdan subjected to his authority all the chiefs of the Olbth proper, con quered Turkistan, obliged another branch of the western Mongols, the Toorgut, to abandon the country west of Songaria, and to retreat to the banks of the Volga and Don, and took possession of Tibet. Thus nearly all the elevated region of Central Asia was subjected to his sway. A war with China followed, in which the Chinese armies were generally successful in expelling the Songares from the conquered provinces, but they could not get possession of Songaria. The death of the emperor Kaug-hi and that of Arabdan occurred about the same date (1723), and for some time Songaria was torn by iuternal ware, in the course of which the throne was occupied by two usurpers, called Davatsi and Amursamt. Though at first closely united, they soon diragreed, and Amnresea took refuge in China, where he was well received, and sent back (1755) with a Chinese army, as the law ful occupant of the throne of the Songares. The expedition was successful: Davatai was taken prisoner, and died soon afterwards. Bat Amursana did not intend to be a vassal of the emperor : he soon collected a large force, and destroyed two Chinese armies which were sent against him ; but he was obliged to yield to the third (1757), which took possession of the whole country of Songaria and Turkistan. These continual ware nearly reduced the country to a desert. The Chinese wishing to re-people it, induced the Toorgut, who had taken refuge in Russia, to return to their native country in 1771 and 1772.
(Ritter, Erdkunde eon Arlen, vol. i. ; Humboldt, Fragments Asiatiques.)