In this, as in all scientific methods, lasting results and permanent progress could be obtained only by getting accurate measurements. The early investi gators relied upon miscellaneous records and imper fect judgment ; the later students of the question in sist upon first, an isolation of the unit to be measured; second, standardized conditions in the method of meas urement; and third, devices for taking measurements which shall be free from the personal equation. These tests, having been applied to an office or factory job, resulted in the establishment of two important methods of scientific investigation before a wage rate can be fixed, or a wage system established. These methods are known as motion-study and time-study; in the development of each, two names stand out prominently. Air. Frank B. Gilbreth, by applying the use of the motion-picture camera, the speed-clock and the cyclegraph to motion-study, and Mr. S. E. Thompson, thru his stop-watch tests and scientific time-studies, have made motion-study and time-study, as administrative aids, almost separate professions in themselves. Altho these studies are the basis of any scientific system of fixing the rate of pay, it is not pos sible here to go into detailed description of them fur ther than to remark that the fundamental distinction between the two is this : Motion-study is applied to the analysis of each operation, with the ob ject of sepa rating it into the most elementary motion units possi ble. Here time-study comes in and measures these units. Time-study, then, has to do, fundamentally, with the measurement of units. At this point, the motion-study element comes in again, since in estab lishing a new method of performing the work only the efficient units are combined. Then the operation may be spoken of as being standardized.
8. as a comparing Eng land and the United States, the progress of manage ment can be measured in terms of the position which is given to rate-fixing. In England, the rate-fixer's function may be summed up in the remark made by a prominent works manager : "A rate-fixer should be able to detect at a glance if the proper speeds and feeds are in use on machines he is constantly dealing with." And so far as the office is concerned, the great majority of concerns have given very little attention to either speed or feeds.
In America, the art has moved from a position where it depended upon the eye and experience of a trained observer, to the point where accurate measur ing instrurnents, close analysis of motions and the se lection of the most efficient are in use. With Eng land, the United States recognizes the importance of the skill and experience of the foreman in following motions with his eye, and in judging the amount of time that they consume. Sight, hearing and touch must all be keenly developed, but this training fits an expert only in getting preliminary results, which can be obtained without the use of devices.
In American practice it is after this preliminary study has been made that the emphasis is placed. In making more intensive studies of certain trades, such as shoveling, concrete work, brick-laying and the like, it was found advantageous to photograph the various positions of the hands, arms and feet during the oper ation, as well as to record the time that the operator took to move from one position to another. And when all this was done for one method, the results were compared with those of other methods. Mr. Gilbreth who, in collaboration with Mrs. Gilbreth, has done much in the cause of rate-fixing, in develop ing devices for accurately recording motion and time measurements, has been able to use the modern pic ture-camera in combination with a speed-clock so that movements in surgical operations have been recorded and timed to the millionth part of an hour. This fact
is mentioned to show the direction which the science has taken, and the results which can be obtained in the study of motions. Such close measurements would seldom be necessary, however, in the study of motions pertaining to industrial and office operations.
9. Rate-fixing as an art.—The recognition of rate fixing as an art distinct from foremanship, dates prac tically from the use of high-speed steel and the ac companying development of the premium system of wage payment. Mr. Taylor emphasized, as early as 1885, the necessity of segregating this fifinction of rate-fixing, and the subject received similar attention at about this time on the river Tyne. It was not un til 1900, however, that rate-fixing became, in both England and America, an important object of ad ministrative attention.
In the case of machine shops—and the same princi ples would hold in other shops and in the office--Mr. Taylor divided the function of time-study so that it would apply to (I) preparation allowance and (2) operating time. In the following table, which has been adapted to English as well as American condi tions, we find the details for an elementary time-study: A. Preparation allowance: (1) Taking instructions from job boss (charge handwork, material, drawings, etc., at machine in advance).
(2) Obtaining tools (fixing, cutting and gauging) .
(3) Preparing machine and setting up tools.
(4) Restoring machine to normal conditions, re turning drawings, tools, etc., at end of job.
B. Operating time per piece: (1) Cutting time.
(2) Securing and setting work in machine (ciane service where needed).
(3) Changing tools (allow for grinding if not pro vided for by tool room).
(4) Starting out and sizing; also allow for return ing the tool to starting point or any other place re quired (sometimes averaged as 25 per cent of cutting time) .
(5) Gauging.
(6) Minimum rest period (sometimes taken at 5 to 12 per cent of net working time, items 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) .
Under a system of scientific management the above factors would be carefully planned and timed. In ordinary practice, however, the rate-fixer would look thru his records of the work done by the machine until he found a piece of work as nearly as possible similar to the proposed job; he would then guess at the time required to do the new piece of work. In determin ing the times in cases where close time measurements have not been taken, English and American practice would not vary much. Thus in the above, a close es timate of the possible operating time having been made, a margin of 50 per cent is added to establish an operating time limit. A similar method is allowed in the case of the preparation allowance. This 50 per cent is estimated by assuming that if the man does the job within standard time lie will be paid at a rate based on one-half the time saved. He will thus automati cally earn a bonus, or premium, of 25 per cent on his time wages, provided, as is often the case in England, the Halsey-Weir or the Rowan wage system is in operation. If straight piecework prices are paid, then a margin of only 25 per cent would be allowed upon the estimated (standard) time. Of course, if other rates of premium or bonus should be desired, then a corresponding adjustment would be made in the per centage allowance on standard times.
The safeguards against ill-judged time measure ments lie, first, in the accuracy with which the condi tions surrounding the operations (the job data) are standardized, and secondly, in the thoroness with which the job data are interpreted by drawing, in struction card, etc., and then put into records as guides for future practice.