Timber /I 'alls may be erected either like stone walls, the wood being used in mass and disposed in layers (log walls), or in the sense of the ordi nary frame by erecting frames and filling in the interstices with proper material (brick- and stud-7.vork).
Log construction of log walls (i6/. 3, figs. 13, 14), it may incidentally be remarked, is practised for the most part only in countries where wood is abundant and the climate cold. Figure 13 gives an idea of the projecting ends of the logs, while in Figure 14 the ends are halved and held by wooden pins. The former mode is most frequently employed, the corbel-like projections, as seen also in Swiss houses in the Bernese Ober land, serving for the support of balconies and overhanging roofs. In places where a partition meets an enclosing wall, projections are arranged in like manner. The timbers are not always hewn in a regular shape; on the contrary, the log houses of the settlers in newly-inhabited countries are often made of rough-hewn tree-trunks livid together with notched ends at the corners. It may also be noticed that the joints in all these walls are caulked with some suitable material, and the openings for doors and win dows, the jambs of which are formed of posts, receive a casing of boards.
and is either wood alone or is of mixed constniction. In the first instance, the framework is made of studs only, with a plate over them, the interspaces being- filled in with wood, which, however, is in the form of planks, fitting into grooves in the studs. This kind of stud work, tog-ether with rafter walls, is often to be seen in Switzerland, and was used in the Sigristen house in. Marbach, Canton of Lucerne, built in 1809 (pl. 3,fig. 15). The manner in which these frame buildings are deco rated with balconies, overhanging roof, carved work, and painting corre sponds to that of the block-houses, as may be seen from the example given.
In frame houses of mixed construction the stud-work is made steady by inclined struts connecting the different members diagonally, the spaces being further divided by cross-bars. These spaces are filled in frequently with bricks united either plain or in figures. In the Middle Ages, and also in the time of the early Renaissance, brick- and stud-work was much used, and the works constructed were often finished in a characteristic manner, as numerous well-preserved examples in Brunswick, Hildesheim, Quedlinburg, Halberstadt, Rouen, etc., prove. The Atte Wage in Bruns
wick (fig. 16) exhibits the peculiar character of the inedimval brick- and stud-work—namely, the typical projection of one story over another, a feature which is founded on ideas sound both from the t-estlietical and from the constructional standpoint.
The Framework, in which the different timbers are generally made about 5j4 inches square, is joined together in every story in sncli a man ner that a sill is notched upon the beads of the joists, which are frequently projecting or resting upon the wall of the substructure. The posts, studs, or uprights, which have their respective distances from one another deter mined mainly by the position of the doors and windows, are then joined npon the sill with mortise and tenon. Between the uprights, and particu larly above and below the openings for the doors and windows, the small cross-bars are then framed in. The plate is placed upon the uprights, the former receiving, in its turn, the notched ceiling joists. In certain parts, particularly the ends, inclined struts and cross-rods are set between the framework, the joists, etc., so as to give stiffness and character to the whole.
IVeatherboarded Houses form a large proportion of the dwellings in the United States. A number of ingenious devices have helped to lessen their cost and to contribute to their utility and adornment. In specially cold portions of the Union it has been found advantag-eons, in some instances, to build a double framework, so as to leave a considerable space filled with air between the outer and the inner wall. It is alleged that by this con trivance less fuel will be required to heat the houses comfortably. English writers commend weatherboarding as safe and economical outside casing for the fronts of dwelling,,--houses tinder appropriate conditions, which in clude separation from adjacent dwellings by a sufficient distance to render the connnunication of fire impossible, and arrangements for backing up the boarding in a solid manner with brick, stone-work, or rubble and con crete. Where brick walls are built within framed enclosures, care should be taken to secure a convenient relation between the brickwork and the braces used in strengthening and supporting the structure.