On Assyrian monuments we more frequently find the "sacred tree" (pl. 17, r), a symmetrical arrangement of stem, vines, and leaves or blossoms, which is always the central point of the worship. Our illustra tion shows at either side of it an eagle-headed, winged figure with the pineapple and hand-basket which often occur in such connection, and which we may consider as having been the principal concomitants of the worship in those regions. Elsewhere we find the sacred tree supported by kneeling figures wearing the priestly cap, or even between winged figures of the bull and the ibex.
On the whole, time Semito-Asiatic mythology' has not as yet been clearly explained, and probably it was but partially understood by the people themselves. Besides, it was so devoid of moral elements that its systematic treatment would scarcely appear a worthy subject of historical science. We are far more interested in learning that even in the remotest antiquity opposition and reformatory efforts were made at various points. These attempts were beyond the comprehension of the time, and therefore were not appreciated, yet they were of the greatest importance regarding their influence on subsequent ages. A representative of this movement was found in Zoroaster (the name is quite differently rendered in the dia lects of the countries into which his teachings were introduced), who opposed materialistic views with a theory which may be briefly character ized as follows: From the infinite original cause of existence proceed two divine beings, Ormuzd and Ahriman. The former, as the first-born, created the "world of light and goodness," and the latter, envious of him, created the "world of darkness and evil." Thus forced to a conflict, Ormuzd called to his assistance the Amshas or "Lords of the Light," the /zeds as companions in arms of a lower rank, among whom the guardian spirit of the sun first appears, and finally the Ferohers 17, 2), or "guardian spirits of mankind." Ahriman called up the Devas, or evil spirits, noxious beings, etc. Every human being is required to declare himself a combatant for the light and to take an active part in the strife. If he live righteously, he will enjoy the protection and approbation of the good spirits. Ormuzd judges every man after his departure from this life, and assigns him either to the king dom of joy or to the realm of grief.
We thus note how these teachings propounded the dualistic view of the world—a theory which still retains its significance. In ancient times this doctrine obtained a general acceptance only after the Persian power had gained predominance. As a state religion, however, it Was first estab lished in the time of the Sassanides, who sought by its means to revivify the nation, which had been rendered effeminate by contact with Greek civilization. From this period also dates the composition of the sacred
books, the Zend-Avesta, from which we learn more accurately the doctrine of the Parsces. Notwithstanding their decided ethical tendency, their moral influence rarely extended beyond the preservation of the original purity of worship. Light was venerated, especially in its earthly visible shape of fire, and sacrifices were offered on the hilltops or on altars erected in the open air (fl. 17, fig. 8). The contrast between good and evil, between purity and impurity, was altogether a formal conception.
The representative of another movement was Moses, the leader of the Israelites, who, in consideration of the peculiar circumstances of his people, made prominent his political endeavors, and by proclaiming one supreme God gave to monotheism an impetus which has been of ines timable value to the civilization of mankind. The Mosaic history of the Creation is a manifesto against the idolatry which was predominant in the world. It is this opposition which gives to the national tradition of the Hebrews—beyond doubt an inestimable relic from times of remotest antiquity—its principal value. With the Egyptians and Babylonians everything is developed from the innate powers of the sun, the stars, and the earth itself. Jehovah, on the other hand, appears as the Creator of heaven and earth, as both the originator and the orderer of the world. While the descent of some from the sun and of others from the stars establishes a difference between man and man, creation by the breath of God makes all men equal.
God speaks from Sinai and says, "I am the Lord thy God, Nvhich have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. Thou shalt have no other gods before me. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or the likeness of anything, that is in the heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth : thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them." It would be impossible to express more sharply the contrast with Egypt, where the worship of numerous deities prevailed, each of which was nevertheless intended to be an image of divine power. In this multi plicity of forms polytheism lost sight of the very idea out of which it had been developed and was transformed into idolatry. In opposition to this was revealed the absolute idea of the pure Godhead, independent of all accident in the mode of its conception.