The foot-covering of the Finnish country-girl (fig. 9) is none other than the early medieval foot-gear (pl. J4, fig. 12). The ankle and foot are wrapped about with cloth, covered at the foot with roughly-cut leather, and fastened with straps. A similar foot-covering is worn by the Slovaks and the Italian mountaineers; but the Spaniard (pl. 47, fig. 15) wears the same as the shepherd of the Roman Campagna, to whom he is probably ethnologically related. The only difference is that the Spanish peasant wears lighter wrappings, and over them a very ancient style of sandal, while the Roman, being much on horseback, has leather leggings. The Corfu woman (fig. 17) wears the ancient sandal, not on her bare feet like the women of old Greece, but over stockings; the rest of her costume shows Byzantine elements, except head-kerchief, n which marks her Slavic descent. A like kerchief is notable on the Slavic woman (fig. 12) of Hungarian Hradisch and the Hanak woman (fig. 13) of Olinfitz in Moravia, but otherwise the costumes of both show peculiarities whose historical origin is easily traceable. The one wears the well-known frill of the sixteenth century, which is also worn by the Slavic woman of Lusatia; the other has the fur coat slit at back, its laps turned and buttoned at the waist—a style which we find again in the army of Frederick the Great.
The large cap of the peasant-woman of the Black Forest (fig. 2) is one of the many outgrowths of the fontange heretofore mentioned (p. 251). The Tyrolese woman (fig. 3) wears the fur cap of the seventeenth century (pl. 38, fig. 14). Even the Saxon girl's peculiar cylinder-shaped hat (pl. 47, fig. 5), here derived from Bistritz in Transylvania, is only the velyet-covered pasteboard frame adorned with spangles and artificial flowers which was worn in Germany in the same century on festive occa sions. In the case before us its only ornament consists of ribbons hang ing down behind. For the rest, this figure wears the fur coat adopted from her Wallachian neighbors, and men's boots, rendered necessary by the bad roads of her country. The Dutch woman (pt. 47, fic. 6) wears the fiche of the French Revolution (pt. 38, fig. 24), but the gold clasps which hold the fine linen cap on her head are of Burgundian origin.
In the Russian gala costume (p1. 47, fig. I I) we readily recognize the ancient Russian garb of Figure 8 (pl. 34). To account for the older Turkish costume (pt. 47, fig. IS), which, however, is now gradually going out of use, we should have to go back far into the history of Ori ental development, perhaps as far as the age of the Sassanides. '1'l1e cos tume of the Scotch Highlanders fo) clearly contains very ancient elements, but, as little is known of the early culture of this people, it would be difficult to trace its precise origin. The same is the case with the costume of the Spanish woman (fig. 16), the cut of whose dress is indeed modern: its bright colors recall the garb of the Roman peasant women, but they also remind one of the like feature of the costumes found in Egyptian paintings. Examples of how modern costumes are adapted to the conditions of a country are shown in the Hungarian peasant (fig. 14) with his linen sack pantaloons, and in the Mexican (fig.
19) with his broad-brimmed straw hat, short jacket, and excessively long pantaloons, which arc suited for riding over hot plains.
Nalional Manners and has been said of national cos tumes holds good for particular habits and usages. They are but relics of former practices, virtuous or vicious. Plate 47 gives a number of more or less well known examples. In the sword-dance of the Ditmarshes (fig. 20) we recognize beyond doubt the popular sport of the ancient Teutons, which Tacitus describes. The horse-races of England (fig. 21) are clearly of ancient origin, though chiefly developed in later times.
The Roman Carnival (fig. 22), like other such festivities, appears as a natural reaction against the severity of Lent, previous to which life for the nonce was given to a season of unrestrained enjoyment. The custom of masquerading originated from an ancient Italian usage which enabled people of rank to frequent places of amusement without being recognized. When the celebrations of the Carnival once passed into the streets—as indeed the tendency of Southern life is naturally out of doors—the use of masks may have received for the above-mentioned reason an additional impulse. The desire which such disguises gratified of appearing a greater personage than one really was influenced others to their adoption. It was soon perceived, too, that greater freedom of action was possible under such concealments: for all these reasons the custom became firmly established, and in time passed to other countries. The " Passion Play " of Oberam mergau (fig. 23) is a direct continuation of the mediaeval mysteries, and up to a late period it had the same purpose in view—namely, to produce an edifying effect by the dramatic representation of the Passion of Christ. Latterly the universal spirit of speculation seems to have taken possession of this institution and to have robbed it of its purer significance.
The Spanish bull-fights (pt. 47, fig. 24) owe their origin, no doubt, to the ancient Roman combats with wild beasts, although no unbroken historical connection can be shown. They can, however, be traced back to the age of the Moorish dominion, after which period no great festival, and especially no royal celebration, was without its bullfight. Formerly, they were considered an honorable combat, and princes and knights engaged in them, but now only professional fighters conduct them for the amusement of the populace. More than else these exhibitions reveal the barbarous element which underlies Spanish life.
The last illustration of our Plate (fig. 25) shows a Russian coasting scene, which is sufficiently accounted for by the climate of the country and needs no historical elucidation; this sport is now Americanized iu the toboggan slide.
Apart from the historic standpoint, the consideration of national cus toms in general falls largely within the province of Ethnology, and those of a more modern origin have become so widespread that any further description by us is unnecessary.