IMAGE-WORSHIP. The use, in public or private religious services, of graven or painted representations of sacred persons or things, and especially the exhibition of honor, reverence, or worship to such representations. Under the old law, because the Jews were constantly tempted by the example of the surrounding idolatrous na tions, the strictures with regard to the worship of images were very severe. There were images of the cherubim placed in the Holy of Holies, however, so that such representations were not entirely forbidden. There is no mention of the use of images in public or private worship in the New Testament, nor in the chronicles of the first cen tury of Christianity. They seem to have been introduced very early, however, for Tertullian at the beginning of the third century mentions the image of the Good Shepherd as engraved upon chalices quite as if this were and had been for a long time a common practice. Crucifixes seem to have been introduced very early; this is proved by a graffito, often supposed to be a pagan carica ture of Christianity. probably of the end of the second century, scratched upon the wall of a room in the palace of the Cxsars. (See GRAFFITI.) It is a rude representation of a. man standing in the attitude of prayer, with outstretched hands, before a grotesque caricature of the crucifixion, bearing the legend `Alexamenus worships God.' The tombs of the Christians in the Roman cata combs, many of which are of a date anterior to Constantine, frequently have graven representa tions of the (love, of the cross, of the symbolical fish. of the ship. of Adam and Eve, of Moses striking the rock, of Jonah, of Daniel in the lions' dell, of the Apostles Peter and Paul, and above all of the Good Shepherd. The chapels of the catacombs are profusely decorated with sacred representations, the age of which it is not easy to determine with accuracy, though some of them seem to come at least from the second century. After the condemnation of the Nes torian heresy in 430, statues and pictures of Christ. of the Virgin Mary, and the saints were very commonly used in public and private reli gious services and in churches and religious edifices. As the mass of the people became more ignorant in the sixth and seventh cen turies, certain abuses with regard to the venera tion of images in religious worship crept in. These led to a reaction against image-worship in the East, which culminated in the movement known as iconoclasm, because it commanded the breaking of images. The formal beginning of iconoclasm was an edict by the Emperor Leo III. (717-741), known in history as the 'saurian. The exact terms, as well as the exact, date, of the edict are unknown, though Hefele places it in 726. It commanded the destruction of all pious images in public places. The removal of a famous image of Christ over the palace door caused a popular uprising in Constantinople. In Greece and Lower Italy the opposition to the edict was pronounced. The Patriarch of Constantinople refused to allow it to he put into force, and Pope Gregory 11. (715-731) condemned it. Leo persisted, however, apparently influenced by the Caliph Yezid 11., who set the example of destroying images in ac cordance with the Mohammedan religion. Saint John of Damascus (died about 760). who lived under the Caliph, wrote three discourses in de fense of the use of images for religious purposes. Under Leo's successor, Constantine Copronymus, a council confirmed the Imperial edict. Leo IV. also upheld iconoclasm. Under his widow, Irene, however, the second Council of Niexa (787) re affirmed the orthodox views as to image-worship; but succeeding emperors, except Michael the Stammerer (820-829), who tried to effect a com promise, were iconoclasts. On February 19,
842, Theodora, widow of Theophilus (829-842), brought back the images in triumph to the Cathedral of Constantinople. This date is kept as the feast of orthodoxy. By an error the acts of the Nicene Council were sent in a gar bled translation to Charlemagne. He objected to their publication in his realm in the Libri Carolini, now generally considered authentic, sent to Pope Hadrian I. (772-795) about 793. The Ni cene Council solemnly declared that the worship to be paid to images is not true adoration, latrcia, which is to be given to God alone, hut dottleia, or veneration. While the Greek verb 77 pOGI(lTi `to worship,' is used, it is explained that it is only in the sense of honoring because they repre sent God or His saints, and because the honor which is given to images is referred to their prototypes. When the error of translation was explained, the misunderstanding ceased to exist_ The Council of Trent reaffirmed the declarations and distinctions of the second Nieene Council as to image-worship, adding that there is "no virtue in images themselves on account of which theyare to be worshiped ; that no petition ean be ad dressed to them; and that no trust is to be placed in them." The council advocates the true use of images, however, contending that they are of great advantage especially for the rude and unlearned, for whom they serve as memorials of the sufferings and of the mercy of Christ. as in structive records of the virtues of the saints, and exhortations to the imitation of their example and as incentives to the love of God and to the practice of piety. In certain parts of the world there are in Roman Catholic churches images for which there is a special veneration. It is well understood that it is not because any virtue re sides in the image itself that it is believed that prayers are more frequently heard when said be fore it, hut because of the special faith and fervor awakened by the traditions attached to it, and the recorded examples of tht• effect of the mercy of God with which it is associated in the minds of the faithful. ltl the Eastern churches, espe cially the Russian, great reverence is paid to printed pictures of the saints. or representations in relief, called icons. Every house has one or inure; and in the churches the iconostasis or screen which saint rates the sanctuary from the body of the church is covered with them, Stat ues. except Of the angels, are not used.
'The Reformers general ly rejected the use of images as an unseriptural novelty, and stigma tize• the Catholic practice al s superstitious, or even idolatrous. The Zwinglian and the Calvinistic churches absolutely and entirely repudiated all use of images for the purpose of worship. Luther, on the contrary, while he con demned the Roman worship of images. regarded the simple use of them, even in the church for the purpose of instruction and as incentive to faith and devotion, as one of those indifferent things which may be permitted, although not of necessary In the Lutli•ran churches of Germany and the northern kingdoms, pictures, ( rucilises, and religious emblems are still freely retained. in all wholly Protestant communions images are entirely unknown, although their use has been freely revived in the Anglican com munion of late years. Consult: Lfidtke, Die Bildcrrerehrung and bildlichea Darstellangen in den ersten christlichen Jahrhonderten (Frei burg. 1874) ; Ilefele, Conciliengeschichtc (7 vols., 1854-71); Kraus, Roma sotterranca (ib., 18791.