The religious clement in Middle Irish litera ture, consisting of hymns and sermons, theological treatises, and lives of saints. bears a general resemblance to contemporary writings in other vernacular languages of Europe. The poetry is largely conventional and technical, but it often reveals a fine fancy and a strong love of nature.
In metrical form it is highly intricate and shows great artistic skill. Chief interest, how ever, attaches to the heroic sagas, which con stitute the best contribution of the Irish to the world's literature. These hero-tales fall into three main groups: (1) The so-called mytho logical cycle, which relates various traditions about tne early settlement and conquest of Ireland; (2) the Ultonian cycle, which tells of the wars between Ulster and Connaught in the time of King Conchobar; and (3) the Ossianic cycle. The tales of the first group are chiefly interesting for the light they seem to throw on the ancient Celtic pantheon. The characters are generally held to be derived by a process of euhemerism from the gods of the old mythology. The cycle of King Conchobar of Ulster represents ancient Irish literature at its best. While not uninfluenced by foreign thought, these old sagas are in the main a representative national product, and they furnish the best existing record of what the ancient Celtic people must have been. They were composed in a mixed prose and verse, which long remained the typical Irish epic form. Many of the sagas of this group seem to have taken practically their final shape before the end of the Old Irish period. The third cycle—that of Finn and Ossian—is found in later manuscripts than the second, and the tales are composed in a more modern language. The events with which they deal are supposed to have taken place two or three centuries after those of the earlier group. The Ossianic cycle shows more traces of foreign influence, and in the opinion of sonic scholars owes its origin and character largely to the con tact of the Irish with the Scandinavian people. But it is more likely that the stories of Finn were in the main a native product, and they have continued down to this day to he a favorite body of tradition with Irish and Scottish Gads alike.
In addition to these three saga cycles, there exist in Middle Irish manuscripts many sepa rate tales, or groups of tales, of interest and importanee. The Immraina, or stories of mar velous voyages, deserve special mention both because they go back to very ancient Celtic tradition and because they appear to have had considerable influence on medieval literature in other tongues. The Voyage of Bran, the oldest and in some respects the most interesting of this series, can safely be dated in the Old Irish period. An entirely different literary vein is represented by the Vision. of MarCongli-nnc, a satire of which the fun has seldom been sur passed. Far removed from either of these types is the story of the Sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin, who have an adventure similar to that related in Chaucer's tale of the Wife of Bath. Middle Irish translations (or adaptations) of foreign material are preserved in considerable number, and represent a wide variety of original, from the tale of Troy to the travels of Sir John Mann deville.
Momatx iRISII. Throughout the older periods of Irish literature nearly all the greatest works are anonymous. In the Modern Irish period this is less the ease. The later literature is on the whole less significant than the earlier, but the writers, as such, claim more attention. At the
beginning of the period stand several prose writers of first importance: the Four Masters, who compiled the greatest collection of Irish annals; DnaId MacFirbis, the genealogist; and Geoffrey Keating (also a poet), whose religious writings and History of Ireland are the standards of classic Irish prose. Treatises in prose, chiefly religious, continued to he written throughout the seventeenth century; but. as education declined among the Irish-speaking population, literature of this sort found itself without a public, and died out. Poetry, on the other hand, continued to be cultivated ; and the work of the modern poets, though it seldom rises high in thought or imagi nation, possesses great melody and charm. Much of it is distinctly popular in character, and has long been common property of the Gaels in both Ireland and Scotland. The seventeenth century witnessed a great change in the form of Irish poetry. The metrical system of the old bardie schools, in which syllable counting and conso nantal rhyme were the controlling principles, gave way to a new verse-form, in which the accent was the unit of measure and the rhyme was primarily vocalic. The use of vowel-rhymes was extended till it applied to all the accented syllables in the line, and a strangely melodious verse-form resulted, in which whole poems are constructed with the same accented vowels re curring throughout in orderly sequence. The two systems existed side by side throughout the seventeenth century; but in the eighteenth, after the disappearance of the old bardie schools, the use of the newer metres became practically universal. The chief representatives of the classic style in its final stage were Teig mac Doke and Lughaidh O'Clery (the leaders in the great "Contention of the Bards"). Teig Dall O'lligin. and Eochaidh O'Hussey. The later school of poets was very numerous, especially in the eigh teenth century. Among the most representative of the number were David O'P,ruadar, John O'Neaghtan. Torlough O'Carolan. Brian Mae Neidhre (whose "Midnight Court" is one of the most remarkable pieces in Modern Irish). Timothy O'Sullivan ("ladlig Gaolaeh'), Egan O'Rahilly, and Owen Roe O'Sullivan.
in the nineteenth century even poetry ceased to be much written in Ireland. and the native lan guage fell into disuse for literary purposes. Only in very recent years has a movement been set on foot to restore the language to general use and to revive Irish literature. An organized effort is being made to bring this about. and Irish books and periodicals are being published in large numbers every year.
Two societies have been especially active in the revival: the "Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language," which has long labored to get more recognition for Irish in the schools: and the Gaelic League. a very large organization, which has lately waged a lively popular cam paign all over the country. Dr. Douglas Hyde (Tv.), the president of the League, has been one of the leaders in the movement. Among others who hale 1.0111e au important share in the work should be mentioned the late Father Eugene Dt.rowney, whose ximph Li ssons in Irish have become the IDO,L. used of Gaelic text .books, find Fathers I'. .1. Dinneen and Peter O'Leary, who contributed largely as authors and editors to the publications of the League.