MAHMUD, met-m(75d'. The name of two sul tans of Turkey. ILAIIIIVD I. (169G-1754) was Sultan from 1730 to 1754. His reign was of no especial importance.--11Ait mull II. (175S-I839) was Sultan from ISOS to 1839. Ile was a younger son of Abd-ul-Hamid L. and on the deposition of his brother, Mustapha IV., by Bairaktar. Pasha of Rustchuk. was raised to the throne, August 1, 1808. Bairaktar became his Grand Vizier. and aided him in his attempts to reform the organi zation of the Turkish army. The Janizaries, emboldened by their successful opposition to the same attempt on the part of Selim III., rose in rebellion, and the murder of the Vizier put a stop for the time being to the carrying out of any military reforms. Mallinud was also attacked by the rebels. but he secured his life and throne by the death of Mustapha, thus making himself the sole representative of the House of Osman, upon the continuance of which its followers believe the Empire to depend. The Ottoman Empire was in a critical condition, threatened by Russia'. and by rebellious vassals within its own borders. After a conflict, which completely prostrated the strength of Turkey. peace was concluded with Russia in 1812 at Bucharest, the Russian fron tier being advanced to the river Pruth. Mahmud now applied himself to the promotion of radical reforms in all departments of the Government. Ali Pasha, the rebellious Pasha of .Tanina, was overthrown in 1822. Greece revolted in 1821, and its independence was secured by the battle of Navarino in 1827, hut it was not recognized as a separate kingdom by Turkey till April, 1830. During the progress of the Greek Revolution, Mahmud had been steadily though secretly ma Wring his plans of military reform, and in June, 1826, the success of his schemes was crowned by the'. destruction of the Janizaries
(q.v.), after which tile army was reorganized on the European model and military schools were established. The consequent confusion into which Turkey was thrown was immediately taken ad vantage of by Russia for obtaining fresh con cessions. Mahmud, however. despite these inter ruptions, proceeded in those plans of reform which he judged essential to the stability of the Empire; and the disastrous termination of the war with Russia (1828-29) (see ADRIANOPLE ) far from interfering with his projects, only stimu lated him to renewed exertion. Meanwhile the frequent unsuccessful wars, together with the disaffection manifested by the Christian popula tion of Turkey, aroused in the mind of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt. the hope of achieving his independence. (See MEnemET Au.) The Egyp tian army, under Ibrahim Pasha, overran Syria in 1831-32, and advanced through Asia Minor, winning a great victory at Konieh. The inter vention of Russia compelled both parties to agree to a treaty (1833) which was satis factory to neither. Mahmud, however, was forced to grant fresh concessions to the Czar, in return for the Russian aid, by the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi. July S. 1833. He again pursued with undiminished vigor his reforms in the administration, the principal improve ments being the modification and readjust ment of the more oppressive taxes, and the grant ing of increased privileges to foreign merchants. In 1839 he renewed the war with Mehemet Ali, hut died on .July 1st, before he had heard of the decisive defeat of his army at Nizib, June 24th. See TURKEY.