TRANSPORTATION. Early transportation is lim ited to packing or carrying; and since in primal thought the female is not merely the blood-car rier. but the custodian of the ehildren and prop erty of the clan, she becomes the chief burden bearer. In the ante-eradle stage the child usually clings astride the mother's left hip or perhaps to her back, leaving her right arm free; the water-vessel is commonly balanced on the head. while bedding and food are borne on the back or in the The burdens of the male are com monly limited to weapons and products of the chase or field. As the toleration of animals ma tures they are impressed. at first voider the no tion that their mysterious powers lighten their loads—a notion akin to that under which primi tive packers approaching a pass carry a stone as a symbol of burdensomeness to be cast away at the summit in token of relief, a custom so common that hundreds of passes in Western .%meriea are marked by stone-heaps. The primal land vehicle is the travois. originally poles for tent or fuel dragged by woman or dog on which impedimenta may be thrown, and later consist ing of two elastic saplings harnessed on either side of the draught-animal and connected behind by a platform or net for carrying the load; in northern regions this grades into the sleigh or toboggan, which pertains to hunters as well as matrons and is drawn by men, women, or dogs. America prodneed the germ of the wheel in the racing football and especially in discoid and an nular gaming stones. to which self-motility and power of pulling their throwers forward were imputed; aceording'to ensiling these were used ceremonially in transporting heavy roof-beams for pueblos from distant mountains, and in Mex ico and Peru short cylinders were used as rollers in moving heavy stones and beams; yet in the absence of powerful draught-animals devices failed to mature in wheeled vehicles. as related devices appear to have done in the Old World.
lower peoples being air-bladders of aquatic crea tures.
The educative activities of primitive men are few. but intense. Especially among wandering tribes. movements are led and the pace is set by the strongest, and the others follow in order and are expected to keep their places under penalty of contempt or abandonment; in this strenuous school youths and children are ex horted to rely on tutelaries for strength and endurance, and actually develop vigor and forti tude; while weaklings and the aged are sup posed to be deserted by the deities, and in some tribes are left to their fate as a pious duty. Among more sedentary tribes racing. (lancing, and other ceremonies afford competitive tests of physical and devotional strength; the liniebol Indians take long journeys, fasting, in search of a stimulating plant, and in the Papago tribe the boys are expected to join in a fasting pil grimage of some hundreds of miles across deserts to the sea and back before they can hope to at tain the privileges of manhood; among Aus tralian mid African tribes equally strenuous tests are prescribed; and among the Mandan the probationary ceremonies attending admission into the warrior class involved actual torture.
In addition to the customs affecting the youth in general. most primitive peoples observe special usages connected with the maintenance of pro or priestly classes. Commonly the can didate solicits preliminary instruction from an aged shaman, and pursuant thereto withdraws into the forest or mountains or desert for fasting and invocation, which are continued to the point of hallucination. when Ile is supposed to receive a new character and perhaps a new totem or name from the `vision.' and returns to his kindred a duly qualified shaman. In certain Papago clans the candidate sleeps fasting near a great rock supposed to harbor rattlesnakes, until the Great Ancient Rattlesnake inducts him into a mystery chamber beneath: in the Kiowa tribe ambitious men may 'dream' a shield, which thereafter becomes the insignia of an order: among the Siouan tribes the youth generally fast until a 'vision' of an animal appears to become each stage the social groups tend to approach a distinctive type characterized by modes of reck oning relationship and by current beliefs; ar ranged by sequence and leading characters, the stages and types are as follows: his totem, while in the related Iroquoian custom described by Schooleraft and Longfellow, the enl ture-hero Hiawatha fasted and invoked the pow ers until Mondamin, the Corn Maiden, appeared and gave corn to men. Sometimes the hallucina tions are hastened and intensified by the use of stimulants or narcotics, regarded as sacred and used ceremonially; the Kiowa and Mescalero Apache tribes use peyote (a cactus containing toxic alkaloids which at once stimulate and pro duce color phantasms), the long Iluichol pil grimages are made in search of a similar plant and sustained by its stimulating effect, several Mexican tribes brew beverages to produce cere monial intoxication, and the natives of Florida used a toxic 'black drink' to fit themselves for im portant ceremonial functions; all customs which throw- light on the uwes of hashish, poppy, and lotus in earlier times and other lands. The edu cative activities of primitive life hardly extend beyond the physical and devotional training of youth and the ceremonial probation of candidates for admission to special classes. The striking features are the predominance of ceremonial mo tives and the absence of previsional control: for it is only in higher culture that the means of education beet:Tile economic, the methods prac tical, and the motives rational.
In general view the industries fall into a de velopmental series, in which the actions pass from the simple to the complex, the methods from the devious to the direct, and the motives from the mechanical to the sacramental. and thence to the rational; the successive steps being marked by continually increasing mentality, growing in dependence of natural environment, and advanc ing conquest over the animal, vegetable, and min eral realms, all interrelated and proceeding cumu latively.