Napoleon 111. was looked upon coldly by the sovereigns of Europe, but the aim of his foreign policy was to make France again dominant in European affairs and himself the general arbiter of the Continent. To check the similar pretension- of Nicholas 1. of Russia in Eastern Europe. he joined England in protecting Turkey against lltmsian aggression, and France took the leading part in the Crimean War (q.v.), The pacification which followed and the adjust ment of the Eastern Question (q.v.) lucre ar ranged by a congress at Paris. (Sec PARIS, TREA TIES 11r, ) The three Eastern Powers, Russia, Prussia. and Austria. which were the strongholds of legitimacy and autocracy, as against the de iutc•racy of France and England. were natural opponents. In the Crimean War he ad a lesson to one of them. By befriend ing Italy. which under the leadership of Sardinia was struggling to free itself front -Austrian op• prc•ssion. lie found an opportunity to strike at Austria and to uphold in the most marked man ner his favorite political hobby, the principle of nationalities. lle encouraged Carom' (q.v.) in the advocacy of enlist' at the Congress of Paris. and, though the attempt of Orsini upon the life almost destroyed the cordial relations that had been cultivated between the Courts of Paris and Turin. under shrewd management the Emperor finally became more friendly than ever. The two held a private con ference at Plombii+res. July 20. 1858, at which Napoleon agreed to support Sardinia in ease of an al taek by Austria. i:avour at once forced Aus tria into aggressive action. and Napoleon. now half repentant of his engagement, took the field. The Italian campaign of 1859. in which Napoleon showed himself utterly incapable of military lead ership. was marked by two great battles. Ma genta and Sol ferino, won by the Allies. Napo leon then selfishly closed the struggle by the preliminaries of (See CAvorn and ITALY.) Ile exacted front Vietor Emmanuel the cession of Nice and Savoy. although he had failed to deliver Venetia and the duchies. His later re lations with Italy were disturbed by fact that lie felt called upon to uphold the Pope in his temporal possessions. and thus clashed with the national ambition of the Italians for complete unity With Ilome as the capital. The protection of French troops was only withdrawn from the Papal States when war with Prussia had begun. During the Civil War in the United States (1561 65) Napoleon took an active part, with the lish Government in the diplomatie intrigues against the United States. Ile took advantage of the disturbed condition of Mexican affairs and of the preoccupation of the United States to revive his dream of a Latin-Ameriean empire under French protection. by establishing the Archduke Maximilian on the new imperial throne of Alexieo Means of French bayonets. Secre Seward warned the French Emperor that the of the United States could only con sider this as an infringement of the Monroe trine and on unfriendly :wt. but no at teat inn was paid to this protest until the termination of the made it possible to send Gen• era I Sheridan with an army of seasoned troops to the Mexican frontier, when the French troops were removed and the unstable Mexican Empire collapsed (18671. This struck a great blow at the prestige of the Emperor. In 1863 61, when the Schleswig-Holstein (q.v.) question engaged the attention of the Powers, Napoleon refused to aid Denmark in her tight for the duchies and advocated the recognition of the principle of na tionalities through the union of the German por tion of the duchies to Germany. On the eve of the war of 1866 Napoleon entered into negotia tions with both.Prussia and Austria, with respect to an alliance, but he was foiled by Bismarck's diplomacy, and the swift issue of the Seven Weeks' War (q.v.) revealed to Napoleon a new military power under masterful guidance, threat ening his schemes for European control. Austria ceded Venetia to Napoleon with the understand ing that it was to be made over to Italy. This was his last appearance in the role of an arbiter in the affairs of Europe.
The internal history of the Empire divides itself into two periods, that of the autocratic and that of the liberal Empire. Napoleon, the man of progressive and liberal ideas, believed that a permanent political edifice could be erected only by the exercise of absolute power. At the out set he brought under his own control the finances and public enterprises: public liberty was re stricted, and a thorough system of police espion age was organized. Napoleon married, January 30, 1853, Eugnie de Montijo, a young Spanish countess, and gratified his 01111 ambitions and her tastes with a brilliant, extravagant, and frivolous court. The Empress Engenie'.s influence was al ways exerted in the interest of the Ultramontane Party. In these days of his absolute power Napoleon pushed public improvements with great energy. Philanthropic institutions were multi plied in France; industrial development was en couraged; and an era of great material prosperity followed, degenerating into one of speculation and luxurious living in which were the seeds of decadence. P‘ailroads and highways were con structed and lines of steamships were established and subsidized. Canals were built and harbors improved. Manufactures, agriculture, and for estry were all fostered by the State. Stock companies were created, and the credit foncier and the credit mobilier stimulated these enter prises with financial support. Paris, under the
Prefect Haussmann,was transformed. As early as the exposition of 1S55 Paris was able to show a new city to its visitors, and at the brilliant ex position of 1867 this development was still more marked. l'olitically, there were three parties in opposition—Legitimists, Orleanists, and Republi cans. Of these the Legitimists were almost lost sight of, with the exception of a few irrecon cilable leaders. The Orleanists were stronger in numbers and in the quality of their adherents, and gave the Emperor more anxiety. The great literary leaders were found in their camp, and the French Academy was their stronghold. The really active opposition, however, lay with the Republicans. None of these parties had any legal means of expression or action. In 185S, after the Orsini attempt, the General Security Act was forced through the Corps Li;gislatif, giv ing the Government power to exile o• transport trial any person convicted of a political offense. Wholesale arrests were made under this act for the purpose of intimidating the Republicans. alienated the Ultramon tanes, upon whost, support he had hitherto de pended, by the 'Italian War, Napoleon relaxed some of his repressive measures to gain the sup port of the Liberals. In 1859 an amnesty decree allowed the return of the exiles of 1851. This was followed by a grant of more freedom of action to the Corps 1.&gislatil. The commercial treaty of 1860 with England abolished the prohibitions and lowered many of the high protective duties which had formed a part of the Emperor's com mercial system. The restrictions upon the frc•e donm of the press were partially removed. A Liberal opposition now began to organize through a coalition of the opposition parties, and after 1863 there was real parliamentary activity in France. A section known as Lilwral Imperialists supported the Emperor, but opposed itis reac tionary ministers. The Ministry, headed by 1:ou her, and with Drouyn de Llmys in charge of foreign affairs, favored a vigorous attitude of opposition to Prussia. The Emperor was broken in health, and after the Prussian triumph over Austria had demoralized his plans and left him discredited with his own ministers, he turned for support to the constitutionalists in the Corps The liberties of that body and of the press were much extended, and the right to hold public political meetings was conceded. In 1869 a responsible Ministry was granted.
In 1870 the following proposition was sub mitted to a plebiscite: "The French nation approves the liberal reforms made in the Con stitution since 1860, and ratifies the Senatorial decree of April 20, 1870." This was opposed by the Republicans, hut was carried by a vote of 7,000,000 to 1,500,000. This popular support of the Imperial regime was apparent rather than real. Notwithstanding temporary coalitions, the different parties were still irreconcilable. The autocratic and war party, which had voted in the affirmative on the plebiscite, came again into power in the Corps Legislatif, with the Duke of Orammont in charge of foreign affairs. l'artly compelled by the diplomacy of Bismarck, and partly actuated by their own aims, the Ministry brought on the war with Prussia, much against the will of the Emperor. ( See FICANCO-GERMAN WAR.) The Emperor went to the front, leaving the Empress as Regent, and she eonstituted a Ministry of the war party under General Pali kao. Napoleon was captured at Sedan (Septem ber 2, 1870), and on the 4th of September was taken to the Castle of Wilhelmshae, near Cassel. In the wild confusion that attended 'the news of defeat in Paris and the declaration of the Republic, the Empress tied from the city and went. to England. taking up Ver residence at Chiselhurst, Kent. where she was joined by Napo leon in 1871, after the conclusion of peace. He resided there until his death. January 9, 1873.
Napoleon and Eugenie had one child, a son, Louis Jean Joseph, Prince Imperial of France, born March 16, 1856. See NAPOLEON, EUGENE LOUIS JEAN JOSEPH.
A collection of Napoleon's own works was published in five volumes (Paris, 1869). Many of them, including the History of Julius Orsar and Napoleonic Ideas, have been translated into English. The Posthumous and Unpub lished Autographs of M. in Exile were edited by De in Chapelle and published in 1873. English works on Napoleon M. are those of Forbes (London, 1898) :Jerrold (London, 1874) : and Frazer (London. 1895). In translation are the works of Hilbert de Saint Amand, Louis Napo leon and Mlle. de Montijo (Eng. trans. New• York.
189; ) , Napoleon 111. and His Court (ib., 1898), of second Empire (ib., 1S90. 'The leading comprehensive histories of the sec ond Empire are: De in Uoree, Histoir( du second M (J vols., Paris, 1885-98), which partially supersedes the earlier work by TaNile Delord, thstoir«la second empire (6 vols., Paris, 1869 76 ). Consult, also, Thirria, Napodtgon 111. arant ntpire (Paris, 1895 ) : Villefranche, Napoleon lb., 1897) Gottschalk, Nopo/con M., eine bioyrophischc Studio (1811) ; Von Sybel, Napo bon 11l. (1873) ; Simson. Die Be:ichanyen ens 111. ZII Preussen and Deutschland (1882): Murdock, 11(11ns/ruction of Europe (Boston, 1891) ; Victor Hugo, llistoire (Pan crime (1877) ; and id., Napokron he petit (1852).