WASTES. By far the greater part of the large quantity of water supplied to the modern muni cipality must be removed again in a more or less befouled condition. All American, many British. and the largest Continental cities have found water to be the best vehiche for removing excreta, and as a result we have the modern sewerage system. which carries away this dangerous waste together with the water otherwise befouled by domestic use. The surface drainage from roofs, yards, and streets may he removed with the sew age, or else. in separate conduits. The food wastes of the kitchen and table, consisting of decompo.sa ble organic. matter. and commonly known as gar bage. require separate disposal; and the same is true of ashes, waste palter, and other rubbish. Street dirt must be colhtet ell anti removed. and the streets must be sprinkled to keep down the dust AvItielt is inevitable even with the best sweeping. All these are municipal functions which cannot be left to private enterprise. Finally, the human dead must be considered under the general head of wastes, and cemeteries must be provided for burying or crematories for burning the bodies. Ceincterict are frequently, but crematories rsm'eh•. mints] by municipalities. The other services in cluded under the heading, in so far as they are performed with regularity and system, are almost invariably rendered by the municipality. either directly or by contractors at its expense and under supervision.
I'moirIcTioN 1.tre, II EA urn, AND l'RorEttrv. The protective functions of a municipal char net er Melnik the work of the police, the courts, the fire iltitartment. and the board of health, to gether with the building inspection service, and the provision of public baths. wash houses, and water closets. The chnritirs einel correction so.rr ler includes poor relief and the maintenance of asylums and reform:Ili (ries. The edam, lona seeeiec not only the work of the (tom mon schools preparatory to the college, but manual training, and sometimes technical education, night school,. vacation schools, libraries, and museums. The municipality ill undertaking the work of elementary education and poor relief is acting as the agent of the State, and is subject to more or lets central contrid so far as these activities are concerned. The rrereet tb-m tn.rrie, includes the establishment and main tenance of parks. gymnasiums, to gether with the provision for public concerts and lectures. The three first named lusting ions might moiler both education and health service, while converts and lectures may be in cluded under education as well as recreation. M u ieiloo 1 hoaxing is practically unknown in Amer ica, but it tt marked feature of municipal activity in Great Britain. It has arisen partly through the demolition of Nvhole blocks of unsanitary bouses, which seemed to make necessary a provi sion for rehousing the ejected tisaants, and partly from a desire to atrurd municipal aid in the ef forts being made by philanthropists to improve the home condition of the working classes. hou.,.s hum at u11nivtpaI are generally designed to provide living places thoroughly san itary in their mmslruttiiii and appointnIt•litt for the poorest class of self-supporting wage-earners.
OacAN 17. %Tot .11141....111 administration of the many and varied activities just outlined demands a degree and eharacter of organization rc•.I•alliling in some rcspct•ts that of a large pri vate (suitor:ohm. In the goVer11111ellt of it I. c,(111111011 to divide the functions of erunient as well as the officials discharge them into three groups—the legis batite, the executive, :mil 1 he judicial. The saint. general plan might lie followed iti lug municipal government. lint separation into these three branches is by no mean.. on account of the greater overlapping of municipal [,iiictionn. The judicial lamer. except as it it exercised by municipal illayort, i. more a State than - and will not be ther considered, except to note the existence of municipal police courts for the prompt trial of persons arrested for misdemeanors or crimes. The legislative functions of municipal govern ments are exercised prinmrily by the council, and the executive, by various officers and boards with the mayor as the chief executive officer. Some of the executive boards possess qu«sidegis. lative powers. while others. such as boards o health, exercise loth legislative and judieia funct ions. The mayor's duties arc legisla tive, judicial. and executive. He often preside over the meetings of the council, casts the de ending vote in ease of a tie, usually has the powe to veto ordinances, appoints officials, supervise. the affairs of the city, hears and passes upon charges involving possible dismissal of official: and sometimes acts as a judge of municipal courts. In the United States the mayor is elected by popular vote, though formerly he was quite generally elected by the council: elsewhere lie is commonly appointed either by the city council or by the central government. (See MAYOR.) In ex tent of power the mayors of the United State* rank first, and there is a strong tendency to in crease their powers and responsibilities. in point of training the mayors of Germany take th lead: in that country the mayoralty is a profes sion, and a successful officer is promoted from one city and larger as his ability and reputation increase. In all countries the mayor is the (thief representative of the city. but in Great Britain alone the office is mainly one of (heftily and honor. In that country the mayor is a mem ber of the eonneil and presides over its meetings, but he does not possess the veto power. The im portance of the mayor's office in the United States is largely due to the control which lie ex ercises over legislation through his power of veto, and to his power of appointing and remov ing executive offieers. The latter power is gener ally subject to approval f11• the council, but it is in freedom from this restriction Ihat the growing importance of the office chiefly consists. The ex tension of the power of appointment is significant becaute it diminishes the number of officials elect ed by popular vote. as well as the number chosen by the ettulleil. and combined with the power of removal, which is coming to be generally granted. enables the mayor to shape municipal policy and to direct the manner in which that policy is carried out The later namicipl char ter: quite generally grant the mayor the power to appoint the various heads of departments. except
the chief financial officer, who is usually elected by popular vote. Aside from the exercise of judi cial power involved in the removal of officials for effuse. mayors do not usually net as judges ex cept in the United States and Great. Britain. and in these countries their judivial functions are ehielly in the capacity of juttives of the peace. In the larger cities of the United States this function is seldom exercised by the mayor. and in some sect ions it is entirely lacking: but it may still be f 1 in force in Delawa re. in the ern States. Indiana. Iowa. and elsewhere. See AI %vow TuE NCI L. The powers and duties of the city council vary greatly in the different court. trios of the world. and quite as mull) so in the several commonwealths cif the United States, or oven in OW cities of a tingle State. Germany leads in I he eomprelien,ive control of its ells over nutnieipal affairs. aml Great Britain ranks next in this particular. The German coun eils control schools and charities, which in Great Britain arc under two sets of quite independent authorities, but while the German councils are in some respects subject to the board of magis trates, including the head magistrate, the bu• gomaster or may(ir, and while the latter has other important functions, the English coun cil has full local control within its sphere. The French municipal councils, unlike those of Germany and Great Britain, have few or no administrative powers. their control being limit ed chiefly to the appropriation of money and questions of policy. In the United States the councils formerly closely resembled those of Great Britain, and frequently had control of charities and of other municipal activities, but one by one many of their powers have been taken from them and bestowed on the mayor or else on independent boards. Among these boards may be mentioned water, sewerage. street, park, fire. police, and health boards, or combinations of two or more of these into a single board. Again, single-headed departments, more or less independent of the coun cil, have been created by municipal charters or by special legislation. The financial control of some of these new bodies has been left with the city council, at least to the extent of making or with holding appropriations, and borrowing money by means of bond issues. In Great Britain and the United States the councils are restricted to the exercise of those powers specifically or authorized by the State, and implied powers are seldom so construed as to warrant permanent loans, purchase of land, erection of buildings, or other public works. On the Continent of Europe grants of municipal authority are far more gen eral and limitations specific, but the central government exercises a general control and supervision over the municipalities unknown in the United States, and rarely if ever practiced in Great Britain. In the latter country, however, the Local Government Board, in sanitary mat ters, and the Board of Trade, in the ease of muni cipal enterprises which produce revenues, pass upon loans, and by their power of granting o• re fusing authority for these they exercise no little control over municipal councils. The council in the United States, particularly in small cities, is generally a. single-chambered body, elected by districts, but there are numerous instances of a select council, or Upper House, the members of which are frequently elected by a larger con stituency than those of the Lower Bouse, o• by the city as a whole, and sometimes serving for a longer term. In England the council sits as one body, but it is composed of councilors elected by the people and of aldermen chosen by the council, usually from its own membership. (See GREAT BRITAIN.) In Continental Europe there usually is but one chamber of councilor., and frequently the members are elected on a genera] ticket. As a rule, the councils in European countries are far larger than those in the United States. contain ing from 50 to 150 members, and in one ease, Bu dapest, 400 members. In the United States, even where two chambers exist, there are rarely over 50 to 60 members, but Philadelphia is a notable exception, with nearly 200 members in both brandies. The tenure of municipal councilors is from one to four years in the United States; three years for councilors and six years for al dermen in Great Britain; four years in France and Spain; five years in Italy; six years in Austria, Prussia, Hungary, Holland, Belgium; and nine years in Bavaria. In most of the European countries provision is made for periodic renewal of the council. The usual rule is renew al by thirds or halves, annually, biennially. or trieimially, according to the length of the term. The most universal legal qualification for coun cilmen, aside from age, is residence. America councilmen must not only reside in the city which they represent, but, by written or unwritten lair, within the district which elects them. in France any taxpayer is eligible, even though not a voter, provided the number of nonresident councilmen 'hoes not exceed one-fourth the whole. In Eng land taxpayers residing within fifteen miles of the municipality may be elected for any district thereof. Property qualifications for a portion of the members of the council are required in European countries, but in a few cities, in cluding Dresden and Leipzig. half of the member ship must be from non-property-holders. In the United States property qualifications for member ship in the council were formerly quite common, but are no longer required. In all countries the work of councils is largely done by committees, and this is particularly true of those countries where the council has large powers and duties. which doubtless accounts for the large bodies in Great Britain and elsewhere in Europe. In Chi cago and in most small cities the presiding officer of the council is the mayor. In other large American cities there is usually a president of the council elected by the city at large. In Eu rope the council usually elects its own presiding officer. Generally speaking, members of munici pal councils receive no salary and frequently ser vice is compulsory. In a number of the large cities of the United States, however, members re ceive pay ranging from a small per 'Hem allow ance to $2000 a year, which is the amount paid to members of the New York Council.