Having secured to Russia access to the sea on the south, Peter turned his eyes toward the Baltic. the possession of whose shores he deter mined to dispute with Sweden. That kingdom since the time of Gustavus Adolphus had been the strongest military power in Northern Europe. In 1700 Peter made an alliance with Sweden's enemies, Denmark and Poland. and threw down the gauntlet in the struggle for the Baltic supremacy. He was badly defeated by Charles X11. at Narva, where his raw troops, although vastly superior in numbers. were wholly unable to cope with the Swedish veterans (November 30, 1700). Peter was not disheartened. Taking ad vantage of the Swedes being employed elsewhere, lie seized a portion of Ingermanland, in which he laid the foundation of the new capital, Saint Pe tersburg (1703). Great inducements were held out to those w'110 would reside in it, and in a few years it became Russia's commercial depot for the Bal tic. For a long tulle in the contest with Sweden the Russians met with defeat, but Peter saw that reverses were administering to his troops a wholesome discipline. In 1709 Charles XII. rashly invaded South Russia. and on July Sth his army was annihilated by the Czar at Poltava. This event marked the collapse of the Swedish power. In the following year Peter was master of Livonia. He now' found himself at war with the Turks, whom Charles X11., who had taken refuge among them, had stirred up to hostilities. In 1711 Peter was caught in a trap on the Pruth and was forced to conclude the Treaty of Hush (July 23d). by which lie gave up the port of Azov and the territory belonging to it. On March 2. 1712. Peter's marriage with his mistress, Cath arine (see CATHARINE 1.1, was celebrated at Saint Petersburg. and two months afterwards the cen tral Government was transferred to the new capi tal. The war against Sweden was prosecuted with energy and success. In 171:1 the Swedish general Stenhock was forced by the Danes, Sax ons, and Russians to surrender at Tbnning. in Schleswig. About the same time the Russians made themselves masters of Finland, and in 1714 the Russian fleet overwhelmed the Swedes near the Aland Islands. In 1716 and 1717 Peter made another tour of Europe. In 1718 a wide spread conspiracy looking toward the undoing of Peter's reforms was discovered and among those implicated was the Crown Prince Alexei Petro vitch (q.v.). Peter caused his son to be sentenced
to death, but pardoned him later. The unfor tunatc prince, according to the most probable accounts, died in prison from the effects of the torture to which lie had been subjected. In 1721 peace was made with Sweden, which surrendered to Russia Livonia, Estlionia, 1nge•rnaniamd, Ka relia, and a small portion of Finland, together with all the islands along the Baltic coast from Courland to Viborg. In the same year Peter assumed the title of Emperor of All the Russias. In 1722 Peter commenced a war with Persia in order to open the Caspian Sea to Rus sian commerce. Derbend and Baku were the fruits of this war. The last years of Peter's life were chiefly occupied in beautifying and improv ing his new capital, and carrying out plans for the diffusion of knowledge among his subjects. In the autumn of 1724 he w•as seized with a serious illness. the result of his imprudence and habitual excesses; and after enduring much agony, he died, February 8 (January 2S), 1725.
Upon the political life of Russia Peter the Great left a powerful impress, and though many of his social reforms proved in the end unadapted to the nature of the Russian people, he never theless must be regarded as the creator of modern Russia, which be first brought into the state sys tem of European nations. The 'testament' at tributed to him, defining his policy, is probably spurious, but it doubtless expresses, with some elaboration, his ideas. Consult: Schuyler, Peter the Great (New York, 18841, one of the best biographies in English; _Motley, "Peter the Great," North American. Review (October, 1845), a notable essay. since republished; Mintzlof, Pierre le Grand dans la litterature (Saint Petersburg, 1S72), containing bibliographical notes on 1200 works not Russian relating in some way to Peter; Bergmann, Peter der Grosse 1823-30) ; Barrow, The Life of Peter the Great (London, 1873) : Bruckner, Peter der Grosse, in the Oneken series (Berlin, 1879). Among Rus sian works, mention should be made of Solovieff, Milionkoff, and Philippoff.