In Italy the medieval system is most pro nounced. Begging is almost universal, and there is little State control of pauperism. The law of 1862 (leggy della opere pie), modified in 1390, some State supervision over chari table corporations, but further development has been checked by the political situation. There are numerous institutions and endowed charities with funds aggregating $4,000,000 or more.
In Austria poor relief is chiefly administered through the eonmnines under the leadership of the priests. The system is known as the Pfarr armen Institute (1782). The funds are ob tained largely from private donations, and each commune supports its own poor, though there is no special tax for the purpose. In Lower Austria the Elberfeld system has been introduced since 1893, with local taxation in case of emer gency. Switzerland supports the helpless and pro vides work for the able-bodied pauper. After the freeing of the serfs Russia turned poor re lief over to the local representative assemblies, which impose taxes for this purpose. In Norway and Sweden public charities are administered by the Established Church. Belgium has alms houses with compulsory labor. Holland has a system of pauper or labor colonies (q.v.), which has won general favor. There exist also over 4600 associations for poor relief, many orphan asylums, and other institutions. In addition there are large numbers of private organizations and institutions.
Long before the Reformation England had un successfully forbidden begging. No provision was made for the destitute until 1388 (12 Richard II.). In 1536 (27 Henry VIII.) each parish was ordered to care for its poor and provide work for the able-bodied. It sons became necessary to in duce the people to give money for this purpose, and at first the bishop was to use•eharitable ways and means' to persuade the unwilling donor. In 1563 it was decreed that the persistent refusal to give would bring one before the courts for pnn ishment. A decade later a tax was levied for the poor, and public officials, overseers of the poor (q.v.), were created. In 1601 the famous law of Elizabeth (43 Eliz., c. 2) was enacted and became the basis of subsequent public poor relief in England and the United States. Emphasis is laid upon the 'setting to work' of the able-bodied. The overseers were given power to assess, collect, and distribute the 'rate.' as the tax was called. They eared for and apprenticed orphan children. The unwillingness of any parish to support the poor of other parishes led in time to the develop ment of strict settlement laws (14 Charles 11., c.I2). Insistence upon 'setting to work' of the able led to the establishment of the workhouse (then called the industrial house). The first one was founded at Bristol in 1097. In 17°2 a gen eral act (9 George I., c. 7) authorized workhouses wherever needed. Any pauper refusing to go to the workhouse was denied assistance elsewhere.
This gave rise to the distinction made in Eng land and elsewhere between assistance given in an institution, technically called 'indoor relief,' and that given at the residence of the recipient or outside of any public institution, 'outdoor re lief.' rhe introduction of the new institutions
naturally gave rise to ninny abuses, and these, with the general humanitarian sentiment of the eighteenth tended toward a reaction. Under Gilbert's act of 1732 the workhouses were largely given over to the old, the infirm, and to children, others receiving assistance outside of the institutions. Various parishes were allowed to form workhouse uniOnS. By an act of 1796 'outdoor relief' was again legalized. The famous Speenhamland Act, adopted in Berkshire in 1795, started the 'allowance system.' A certain mini- • mum of wages was considered necessary, and the difference between this and the amount actually earned was to be supplied by the State. This was extended by the net of 1796. The expenditures for the relief of the poor rose from about £2,004, 000 in 1775 to £4.267.000 in 1802, and to £7,S90, 000 by ISIS. Such a rapid increase called for in vestigation. A commission authorized by Par liament, after a thorough investigation (1832 34), made a remarkable report (1833-34) show ing a deplorable condition of affairs. Pauperism seemed to he contagious, and in some districts nearly all the able-bodied men were receiving al lowances. In 1334 (4 and 5 William IV.) radi cal reforms were introduced. Outdoor relief was gradually withdrawn and limited as far as pos sible. Able-bodied men were refused assistance outside the workhouse. The population of the workhouses was classified. The sexes were sepa rated and only plain necessaries of life were pro vided. The functions of overseers had already been restricted to the eolleetion of rates, and the distribution of relief had been given to boards of guardians. This arrangement was con tinued. A central body of commissioners was created, which became in 1S47 the Poor Law Board. This body was abolished in 1871 and its powers were lodged in the Local Government Board, which is now the body controlling the gen eral execution of the Poor Law in England and Wales. The results have been satisfactory. New unions were formed. Conditions within the work houses have improved. Many children have been educated in the special workhouse schools, but there is a growing tendency to send them to the regular parish schools. In many districts chil dren are hoarded out in private families. When children are ready to support themselves they are apprenticed in various trades. The workhouses of the first half of the nineteenth century have grown into numerous special institutions for the insane, blind, and deaf and dumb, so that the workhouse of to-day is not the general dumping place of the infirm and unfit. The following table, drawn from statistical reports, shows the ex penses of the public relief and the number as sisted.