HOLLAND. Dutch painting differed from that of other countries in that it was bourgeois in stead of aristocratic. Its prime object was the decoration of the home, and it consequently pro duced chiefly the small panel pictures. Begin ning with portraits, Dutch painting developed in every direction, genre, landscape. cattle, still life, all within a single century—the seventeenth. Among the earliest portraitists were Mierevelt (1567-1641), Ravesteyn (d. 1657). and Keyser (d. 1667), hut the chief master of the Haar lem school was Frans Hals (e.1584-1666), one of the greatest portraitists of all times. An astonishing realist of delightful humor, he painted his pictures in full light, and excelled in all pictorial qualities, his strength being only equaled by his facility. The greatest painter in Dutch art was Rembrandt (1606-69), of the Amsterdam school. the mater of light and shade. In the emphasis achieved by the use high lights, in luminosity and transparency of shadows, and in harmony of warm. rid) color, he has never been surpassed. A master of real ism and characterization in portraiture. he nevertheless grasped universal truth-, and in landscape and he showed the same of view. His pupils were 1101, Flinek. and Eeekhout. Of quite a different character was Van der HeIst (d. 1670), whose well-modeb.d heads were more and detailed. Among Dutch genre painters, one class devoted it-elf to peasant scenes, especially in the tavern, 0).1 rse in subject. but highly picturesque in character and tine in color; the chief representative, were Adriaen van Ostade, Brouwer, and Jan Steen. Another class, including Gerard Doti, let-n, Frans van :Mieri, the elder, Netscher. Jan van der Meer of Delft, and Eglon van der Neer. de voted itself to society of a higher social scale, usually interiors, painted with the greatest de tail; the best of this group are the refined Ter burg and l'ieter de Ilooghe.
The Dutch landscape differs from the classic in its realism (see LANDSCAPE). and in the sub stitution of beauty of tone for that of color. which is subordinated to a prevailing brown scheme. It shows a thorough knowledge of the forms of natural objects and of ailrial per-pee Live. Following earlier landscapists like Van Goven (d. 1656) and Salomon van Ruysdael 1670), the school culminated in Jacob van Ruys dael (e.1625-821 and Hobbemar (e.163S-17091. The former's talent was of a gloomy and tragic character; the latter's a sunnier and more friendly. Both confined themselves chhdly to Dutch scenes, while others of the Dutch land scapists made extensive travel,. Allart van Everdingen (d. 1675) visited Norway, while Berchem, Dujardin, and Pynacker produced clas sic Italian pieces. Among cattle with whom, however. the landscape is of equal im portance, were Paul Potter (1625-54). a harsh realist, Adriaen van de Veble Id. 16721. and Albert Cuvp (1620-911. (If marine painters the most important were Racklmysen d. 1709). who portrayed the tempest. and Willem van de Velde the younger (d. 17071, who preferred the smooth haven, with ships riding at anchor. The work of the numerous still-life painters is char acterized by emphasis of detail. Among these the principal painters of flowers were Jan de Ileem, Van Huysum. and Rachel Ruysch; of dead game. Weenix and Van Aelst : of poultry. lion eocter: of pots. pans. dishes, and vegetables. Kalf.
En; IITEEN Tit CENTURY. The eighteenth century is the transition from the aristoerati: art of the seventeenth to the more democratic art of the nineteenth. On the one hand it witnessed, espe cially in France, an after-development and Cm decline of the art of the seventeenth: on the other, it saw in Emdand the rise of what may be called an art of the middle classes. which came
to prevail universally in the nineteenth century.
With the Regency and the reign of Louis XV., painting in France assumed the frivolous char acter of the (-hanged Court life. produeing admir able decorative piece., for boudoir and hall, charming in color and light in touch. The most important master of the period was Watteau (1684-17•'11, who depicted delicate and skillful genre pieces of fashionable life. His best pupils were Laneret and Pater, who continued his style with success, but with Van Loo and Boucher it degenerated into extravagances. Fragonard (17:32-1806) was a superior painter, especially in color effects. The principal landscape painter of the day was Joseph Vernet, the chief portraitist Hyacinthe Itigaud. Contemporary with the Court painters were others who painted genre scenes from the life of the middle classes, like Chardin, a good colorist and an able realist, and Greuze, well known through his heads of young girls. • In Italy a style prevailed, originated by Pietro da Cortona (1596-16t39), and developed by Luca Giordano (1632-1705), the principal character istic of which was rapidity of execution.. Only in Venice was there real artistic activ ity. The genre painters Piazetta and Longhi were followed by Tiepolo (1697-1770), the last great Venetian. With an art based upon Veronese, though lighter in color, he painted in a dashing style, but with a strong, picturesque realism. Canaletto and Guardi painted Vene tian scenes with fine color effect. In Spain lie dearth of talent was broken by Goya (1746-1828), an intense realist of grotesque imagination, who handled his brush with almost the case of Velaz quez. and treated light and shade in a peculiarly individual manner.
Ex(.4.‘Nn. A prelude to modern painting took place in England during the eighteenth century, which, however important, stands apart from the general development. Up to this time the demand for artists had been supplied by impor irtions, chief among whom were Holhein, Van Dyck, Lely. and Kneller. Consequently there was no tradition to break, and English artists were the first to turn directly to nature. The first native painter of note was 'William Ho garth (1697-1764). a coarse realist of original technique. who used art as a vehicle for incul cating moral ideas. He was, however, I e,S in fluential than Sir .Joshua Reynolds (1723-92), the founder of the academie element in English painting. 'His art was eclectic. lint his portraits are dignified realistic presentations. Far more original was Gainshorough (1727-SS), who went directly to nature for inspiration, and whose highly poetic temperament is as evident in his portraiture as in his landscapes, in which he is an innovator. The art of Romney (1734-1802), another portraitist. was midway between that of Reynolds and Gainshorough. In landscape Richard Wilson (1713-82) continued the classic manner of 'Claude. while in Morland (1763 I801) England produced a most able painter of genre and animal subjects. At the same time a school of water-colorists, founded by Cozens (1752-99) and Girtin (1775-1802), introduced brightness of tone and pleb]. air methods, pre paring the way for the modern landscape. This nicilinni, further developed by Thomas Stothard (1755-1834) and Turner, has always been one of the strong points of the English school.