PALIMPSEST (Lat. palimpsestus. from Gk. raMistfrnaros, scraped again, from TrciXep, main, again + psiRtos. scraped. from 031,,psCit, to rub smooth). The name given to parchment, papyrus, or other writing material, from which, after it had been written upon. the first writing was wholly or in part removed in order that the page might be made available a second time. The ink used on papyrus and sometime- on parch ment was commonly of soot mixed with gum and thinned with water, or else the liquid of the cuttlefish. This could be washed nut with a sponge. and the latter was part of the writing equipment. Where this ink has been used, there is usually no trace of the original writing if the manuscript has been used again. Later for parchment, ink made from gall-apples. sometimes with the addition of vitriol. or metal lic substances, was used. This took hold of tree vellum, and for removal required the use of pumice, or of a mixture of milk, cheese, and lime to soften the parchment. Sometimes the knife was used, of course to the complete destruction of the writing. The processes employed were not always very complete. nor were they care fully carried out. and as a result in a number of cases the earlier writing is still more or less legible. The fragile character of papyrus made it difficult. if not impossible. to wash out writ ing of long standing. though the sponge was probably used while the ink was fresh. Since on papyri, as a rule, the writing was only on the recto, the back was frequently used to receive later writing. In the case of parchment, espe cially when bound in books. erasure, was needed for a second use. The practice was common in classical times, and is frequently mentioned in the ancient writers, though in some cases it may be doubted whether the reference is not to wax tablets. In general, these old palimpsests were used as note-looks or for rough drafts. The relative scarcity and cost of papyrus or vellum undoubtedly was responsible. for this custom, and,with the disw,e of papyrus and increasing de mand for parchment. the habit of using old books increaseel in the East and West. Though vellum began to supersede papyrus for important works in the fourth century of our era, it was not till the seventh century, when the Arab conquest shut off the supply, that it became practically the only material in use. and it is from that time that palimpsts begin to increase. In the East. in 691, a Greek synod forbade the de struction of manuscripts of the Bible or of the Fathers, unless they were already damaged, and in the \Vest much use was made of oil manu scripts from the seventh to the ninth century, when, in consequence of the disturbed state of the country. there was some scarcity of material, and
the old volumes of neglected authors were used for more popular work,. Some writer, have as cribed this to the indifferenee and even to the hostility of the monks and clergy to classical literature, and have attributed to their reckless destruction of classic manuscripts, in order to provide material for their own service-books and legendaries, the deficiencies in the remains of ancient learning which scholars have now to de plore. That some part of the loss may have arisen it is impossible to doubt, although it is equally certain that we owe to the mediaeval monks and clergy the preservation of a large part of the surviving ancient literature. Moreover, it seems probable that in general damaged eopie, were drawn upon for palimpsests, and in some cases the writing was not erased till the sheets had been resewn. It is said that no palimpsest shows that it originally contained a complete work under the later writing. thou_rh in some cases the amount preserved is very large. It should also be note-el that in not a few cases the Bible or ('hurc•h Fathers are found under classical or late texts, so that convenience. not hostility. seems in general to have determined the choice of material for erasure. While the practice continued even down to the sixteenth century, and in at least one case cleaned parch ment was used for a printed look, most of the valuable Latin palimpsests are earlier than the tenth century. when it was possible to use the fine parchment of earlier times. In the East the practice was much More general. and the best palimpsests are of a later period. In fact. it is said that a relatively large proportion of exist ing Greek manuscripts are on reused vellum. While many of these are of Eastern manufacture. not a few show that the upper writing was done. in Italy and the West. The natural result of these factor: is that in general the palimpsests yield fragments. whose value lies largely in testi mony to the early state of the text. In biblical eritiei-m some very important results have been obtained from early palimpsests. and in classical literature such palimpsests as the Codex Am broisanus of Plautus have unique value. Most important of course are the rare cases where a lost work may be recovered from a palimpsest, as in the case of the Republic of Cicero, or the institatis of Gaius.