For the last two centuries Great Britain has shared with Germany the honor of having distinc tive national philosophies. English thought has been predominantly empiristic and associationis tic until the last half century. Hartley gave as sociationism (q.v.) its modern form, and James Mill applied it to all the life of mind. John Stuart Mill, best known popularly by his utilita rianism (q.v.), did his greatest philosophic work in logic. True to empiricism, he introduced induction into the now occupies in logical theory, and vet he builded better than he knew. His empiricism did not furnish an adequate basis for his logic, and subsequent logicians, as Sig wart in Germany and Bosanquet in England, have succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between empiricism and rationalism in logic; but this they could not have done witbout pioneer work. Darwin's great discovery has been ex tremely fruitful in philosophy. Spencer has worked out an evolutionary philosophy in elabo rate detail, but with a strong individualistic bias. It is, however, marred by a lack of his toric perspective. Lewes represented positivism; 'Martineau has been the most prominent advocate of intuitionism (q.v.), applying intuitionistie principles especially to ethics and theology. Green, Bradley, and Bosanquet, under the influ ence of German idealism, have sought to stem the tide of empiricism. Ward, from a psycho logical starting-point, has likewise reached an idealistic result. Under the leadership of these men and of the two Cairds, of Scotland, English philosophy has almost left its empiristie moor ings.
The typical philosophy of Scotland since the time of Hume has been intuitionism. Hutcheson may be regarded as its founder. Reid and Stewart gave it classical expression. This Scotch thought was a protest against the Lockean doctrine that knowledge is only a cor respondence between ideas, and stoutly main tained that we have immediate knowledge of ob reality. Hamilton, in his natural realism, sought to reconcile intuitionism with Kantianism. The two Cairds and Stirling broke away from the intuitionistic tradition and gave Hegelianism a vogue which makes it rival intuitionism in Scotland and empiricism in England.
In America the greatest original philosopher was Jonathan Edwards, who, starting from Loekean premises, elaborated under Calvinistic influences a most uncompromising determinism (q.v.). Franklin, while not technically a philosopher, gave an impetus toward empiricism. Witherspoon and McCosh brought strong support to Scotch intuitionism, also taught by Upham and Wayland. Among the educators who early aroused interest in philosophy were Noah Porter, I\ lark Hopkins, and Daniel Coit Hickok was mildly Kantian; Bowen was eclectic; Bowne and Ladd are Lotzeans. The Concord School of Philosophy, headed by Emerson, popularized German idealism, which has been strongly defended technically by Harris; while Royce and Dewey have given it a more independent and original state ment. James is a brilliant advocate of em
piricism and seeks to rescue philosophy from agnosticism by asserting the right of a will to believe in face of doubt; and George Stuart Fullerton is a keen critic, whose studies in epis temology are of special importance.
In the last century the significance of the history of philosophy has been Brought out by a long line of historians, beginning with Hegel. The result is that the continuity of philosophic development, and the genuine advance made by philosophic thought, in spite of an apparently merely back-and-forth movement, have been ap preciated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Knipe, Einlcit« ng in die Bibliography. Knipe, Einlcit« ng in die Philosophic (2d ed., Leipzig, 1898; Eng. trans., London, 1897) ; Rogers, Brief Introduction to Philosophy (New York, 1899) ; Ladd, Introduc tion. to Philosophy (Th., 1890): Paulsen, Ein leituny in die Philosophic (4th ed., Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., New York, 1898) ; Ilibben, The Problems of Philosophy (ib., 1898) ; Wundt, System der• Philosophic (20 ed., Leipzig, 1897). W. S. Sonnenschein has published Bibliography of Philosophy (London, 1897). For the history of philosophy especially, consult: Schwegler, Handbook of the History of Philosophy (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1871) ; id., A /1istor•y of Philosophy in• Epitome (Eng. trans., New York, 1888) ; Erdmann, History of Philosophy (Eng. trans., London, 1S90) : Ueberweg, History of Philosophy (Eng. trans., new ed., New York, 1891; the original German work has been fre quently revised by Heinze, 8th ed., Berlin. 1896 J7) ; Windelband, History of Philosophy (Eng. trans., New Yo•k, 1901) ; Weber, Histoire de In philosophic euroN'enne (5th el., Paris, 1892; Eng. trans., New York, 1897). For the Greek period, especially Zeller, Die Philosophic der• Gricchen, in several volumes, covering separate periods, and separately translated ; Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (London, 1892) ; Ritter and Pi-eller, Historic Philosophic' Ortectr (8th ed., Gotha, 1898). For scholastic philosophy, see the article SCHOLASTICISM. For the more modern developments, Windelband. Gcschichteder neuerm Philosophic (Giittingen, 189ti) ; Fischer, Geschiehtc der nencren. Philosophic (4th ed., Heidelberg, 1898-1902) ; Iflitiding, History of Modern Philosophy (Eng. trans., London, 1900) ; Royce, The Spirit of Modern Philosophy (Boston, 1892) ; Seth. From Kant to Hegel (London, 1892) ; Falckenberg, l/i.stor•y of Modern osophy (Eng. trans.. New York, 1893) ; also, Blackwood's Philosophical Classics,Criggs's Phil osophical Classics, and Fromm:11)11's K lassiker der Philosophic. Excellent bibliographies are to he found in Weber's and Ueberweg's histories re ferred to above.