sg., an, d; pl., vs, O.
sg., e, a, bpi (mi), nn; pl., bhis, Dat. sg., (ai), c, bhyn (m) ; pl., bityns.
Gen. sg., (a)s, sia ; pl., urns (am,), sum.
Abl. sg., [Gs], (a) t ; pl., bhyas.
Loc. sg., i; pl.. an (si).
The ablative is lacking in the singular, except in a few• nouns and pronouns, and in the plural, borrowing the forms of the genitive singular and dative plural. The plural os (as) is the nonn-end Mg in Sanskrit; ai (oi) the pronoun ending in Sanskrit and Oscan and the noun ending in Slavic, Greek, Latin, Celtic, and Gothic. As plural signs serve both i and s• the latter being added to the nominative, accusative, instrumental, and dative. Sonw endings were independent words. e.g., i. a, u, at, and Saustg•it still has eases made by adding a to Adjectives have nom) endings (with sonic restrictions). The comparative taro means 'fvn•tlier' (also ins, 'los). The superlative, tato, In nut, a lid ishta, is not clear. Numerals have es sentially the same form in Indo-European, ni-ka (oinas), dud, tic, gatnni-centunt, up to Xalot = (so) pawn, though the latter identification is doubtful, and in any case may mean 'heap,' or large number, rather than a definite thousand. The duodecimal system is clearly marked in San skrit higher numbers alongside of the decimal system (see above). Participles are part of the noun-system and the stems end in to, na. mo(m)ma in Sanskrit, Avestan, Greek, and Latin. Prep ositions (adverbs) may have case-endings, e.g. rapa-1, irapd, 7p666).
honks or• Vmuts. The Indo-European lan guages had flair tenses, present (imperfect), nor 1st. perfect, future, and four modes. indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. Only the first tln•ee tenses are pure, the future be ing modal (will), and consequently the future is found only in the indicative. with rare (Vedic) and late (Greek) exceptions. There are two voices, active and middle, the latter serving originally as a passive as well. Secondary eonju ;rations of the pro-ethnic period are numerous. The most clearly defined are causative, denomina tive, intensive. desiderative, and inchoative. San skrit further invented a passive class, and Latin and Celtic had a special passive voice, while and Sanskrit converted certain aorist forms into passives. There are three numbers, but the dual is weak and even in the oldest Vedic and Greek interchanges with the plural, being lost in Celtic and Latin (save for the ending -pis), though pre served in Gothic and Balto-Slavic. Verbal end ings are primary and secondary (present and preterite) ; special endings occur in the perfect. Omitting the dual, these endings in Sanskrit, which has preserved them most fully, are in the active singular, 1, mi, a; 2, si, tha; 3, ti, a; plural, 1, mss ma; 2, thu, a; 3. a(n)ti, while the middle changes i to e and was, tha, to male, dh ye, and the preterite tenses drop the final vowel and have mahi• dhram, for mahe. dhr.e. The preterites and the fect have also certain r-forms, ram. ri7, etc_ like the Latin passive. The present stein is
divided into many classes, of which ten are recog nized by native Sanskrit grammarians. Including secondary conjugations. the Indo-European lan guages had in all thirty-two ways of varying the stem by infixes, suffixes, and changing the vowel of the root. Many of these verbal stems coin cide with nominal stems. They appear originally to have indicated modified forms of action. The aorist stem is ::ormed either by reduplication. like the perfect. or by inserting an s-element, like the future. or it may be differentiated front the present class merely by the vowel or by an end ing (fij, Pdatau). The future has primary ings, but in Sanskrit may be augmented with preterite endings. snaking a conditional. The sub junctive and optative have different formative elements and their endings are originally the pri mary and secondary, respectively (see below), while the imperative has preterite endings modi fied. or special forms. it has no modal sign. In some classes of verbs the subjunctive form coincides with the indicative. llenee ai, the sub junctive modal sign. Greek is not locative, as Scherer taught. but probably due to analogy. The optative sign is is when accented, i when unac cented. as shown by J. Schmidt; whence i is probably a reduction from Ia (compare pa, 'go,' though this derivation is not favored by Schmidt).
As to the personal endings, with the exception of the plural (and the dual), Delbriick thinks that they are connected with the personal pronouns, but if so they must go back to a pe riod when they were more deistic than pronomi nal. The singular affixes mi, si, ti have been ex plained (not very convincingly) both as taken from the pronouns and as having originated the pronouns: hut the plural anti is probably con nected with the participle. the i being explained by Aseoli and Brugmann as due to aiming with ti (a locative in Scherer's opinion). This finite Verbal form would then be analogous to amantini (also a participle). The middle endings have been explained as strengthened forms. In San skrit the only original strongest form is at (sal and tai being later), a still stronger form of which lends color to this (still doubtful sug gestion. Verbal stems were originally not con nected with prepositions (most of which are ad verbs) : hence Latin compound verbs are later than Greek and Sanskrit. and 'lines's' in the lat ter is really the older form. New forms have been developed in the separate language. ex:. aorist passives, the future optative and .future infinitive in Greek; a third singular preterite :wrist passive and a complete in Sanskrit; r-pa-sive and Le-future in Latin and ('eltic. Greek, like sanskrit, is older than Latin in having fuller endings, a middle voice, and an augment. The other Indo-European lan guages have later verbal forms. The augment may have had a short and a long form, e, n, and survived in Sanskrit, Persian, and Greek, ??ith traces in Avestan.